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Biology II > ch. 41 > Flashcards

ch. 41 Flashcards

1
Q

animal nutrition process

A

food is taken in , taken apart, and taken up

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2
Q

herbivores

A

eat mainly plants or algae

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3
Q

carnivores

A

eat other animals

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4
Q

omnivores

A

regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae

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5
Q

essential nutrients

A

required materials that an animal cannot assemble from simpler organic molecules

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6
Q

4 classes of essential nutrients

A
  1. essential amino acids
  2. essential fatty acids
  3. vitamins
  4. minerals
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7
Q

where are essential nutrients obtained

A

animal’s diet

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8
Q

how many amino acids do animals require

A

20

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9
Q

how many amino acids can animals synthesize from their diet

A

about half - essential

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10
Q

how do vegetarians obtain all essential amino acids

A

eating a varied diet of plant proteins

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11
Q

fatty acids purpose

A

membranes, signaling, storage fats
- mammals - linoleic acid
- eats seeds, grains, vegetables

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12
Q

vitamins

A

organic molecules required in the diet in very small amounts

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13
Q

how many vitamins are essential for humans

A

13

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14
Q

2 categories of vitamins

A

fat-soluble and water-soluble

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15
Q

minerals

A

simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts

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16
Q

malnutrition

A

failure to obtain adequate nutrition

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17
Q

effects of malnutrition

A

deformities, disease, and death

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18
Q

undernourishment

A

diet does not provide enough chemical energy

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19
Q

what happens to undernourished individuals

A
  • use up stored fat/carbohydrates
  • break down own proteins
  • lose muscle mass
  • suffer protein deficiency of brain
  • die or suffer irreversible damage
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20
Q

epidemiology

A

study of human health and disease in populations

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21
Q

what are neural tube defects in babies a result of

A

deficiency in folic acid in pregnant mothers

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22
Q

ingestion

A

act of eating or feeding

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23
Q

different types of feeders

A

filter, substrate, fluid, bulk

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24
Q

filter feeders

A

which sift small food particles from water

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25
Q

substrate feeders

A

live in or on food source

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26
Q

fluid feeders

A

suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host

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27
Q

bulk feeders

A

eat relatively large pieces of food

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28
Q

digestion

A

breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb

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29
Q

mechanical digestion

A

chewing or grinding, increases surface area of food

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30
Q

chemical digestion

A

splits food into small molecules that can pass through membranes
- enzymatic hydrolysis

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31
Q

enzymatic hydrolysis

A

splits bonds in molecules with addition of water

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32
Q

absorption

A

uptake of small molecules by body cells

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33
Q

elimination

A

passage of undigested material out of the digestive system

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34
Q

what reduces the risk of animals digesting their own cells/tissues?

A

digestive compartments

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35
Q

intracellular digestion

A
  • food particles engulfed by phagocytosis and pinocytosis
  • food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes
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36
Q

what animal uses intracellular digestion

A

sponges

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37
Q

extracellular digestion

A
  • breaks down food particles outside of cells
  • occurs in compartments continuous with outside of body
  • some animals have gastrovascular cavity
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38
Q

complete digestive tract

A

have both mouth and an anus

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39
Q

alimentary canal

A

digestive tube, complete digestive tract

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40
Q

accessory glands of digestion

A

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

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41
Q

what does saliva contain

A

mucus (water, salts, cells, glycoproteins), amylase (breaks down amylose)

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42
Q

what does saliva do

A

lubricate food

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43
Q

what does the tongue do

A

shape food into a bolus to help with swallowing

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44
Q

pharynx (throat)

A

junction that opens to both esophagus and trachea

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45
Q

what blocks food entry to the trachea

A

epiglottis

46
Q

peristalsis

A

rhythmic contractions of muscles in wall of esophageal canal to push food down

47
Q

stomach function

A

stores food and processes food into liquid suspension

48
Q

chyme

A

mixture food and gastric juice

49
Q

gastric juice composition

A
  • hydrochloric acid and pepsin
  • pH of 2
50
Q

gastric juice function

A

kills bacteria and denatures proteins

51
Q

pepsin

A

protease that breaks peptide bonds to cleave proteins into smaller peptides

52
Q

parietal cells

A

secrete hydrogen and chloride ions separately into lumen (cavity) of the stomach

53
Q

chief cells

A

secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric acid in stomach

54
Q

what protects the stomach lining from gastric juice?

A

mucus

55
Q

how often are stomach epithelial layers replaced by cell division

A

3 days

56
Q

gastric ulcers

A

lesions in the lining caused by bacterium Helicobacter pylori

57
Q

what churns the stomach’s contents

A

coordinated contraction

58
Q

what prevent chyme from entering esophagus

A

sphincters

59
Q

heartburn

A

if sphincter at top of stomach allows movement of chyme back to lower end of esophagus

60
Q

longest compartment of the alimentary canal

A

small intestine

61
Q

where does most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules from food occur

A

small intestine

62
Q

first portion of small intestine

A

duodenum

63
Q

what occurs in the duodenum

A

chyme from stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and small intestine

64
Q

what does the pancreas produce

A
  • trypsinogen
  • chymotrypsinogen
65
Q

what are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen activated into

A

trypsin and chymotrypsin
- in duodenum lumen
- solution alkaline, neutralizes acidic chyme

66
Q

where is bile made and stored?

A
  • made in liver, stored in gallbladder
67
Q

bile salts purpose

A
  • facilitate digestion of fats
  • major component of bile
68
Q

bile functions

A
  • destroys nonfunctional red blood cells
69
Q

why does the small intestine have microvilli and villi

A

to increase the surface area for absorption

70
Q

brush border

A

created by microvillar surface of small intestine that greatly increases rate of nutrient absorption

71
Q

transport across epithelial cells of small intestine

A

passive or active
- depends on nutrient

72
Q

hepatic portal vein

A

carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart

73
Q

function of the liver

A
  • regulates nutrient distribution
  • detoxifies many organic molecules
74
Q

what do the epithelial cells of the intestines absorb

A
  • fatty acids
  • monoglycerides
  • recombine them into triglycerides
75
Q

chylomicrons

A

fats coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins to form water-soluble chylomicrons

76
Q

where are chylomicrons transported

A

into a lacteal - lymphatic vessel in each villus
- deliver chlyomicron-containing lymph to large veins that return blood to heart

77
Q

where does the alimentary canal end

A

large intestine

78
Q

parts of the large intestine

A
  • cecum
  • colon - leads to rectum and anus
79
Q

cecum

A
  • fermentation of plant material
  • connects where small/large intestines meet
80
Q

colon

A

completes recovery of water that began in small intestine

81
Q

appendix

A

extension of human cecum
- plays minor role in immunity

82
Q

feces

A

wastes of the digestive system
- become more solid as they move through the colon

83
Q

where do feces exit the body

A
  • stored in rectum until eliminated through anus
  • 2 sphincters between rectum and anus control bowel movements
84
Q

stomachs of carnivores

A

large, expandable stomachs

85
Q

digestive system of herbivores and omnivores

A

longer alimentary canals that carnivores
- reflects longer time needed to digest vegetation

86
Q

intestinal bacteria function

A
  • produce vitamins
  • regulate development of intestinal epithelium
  • regulate function of innate immune system
87
Q

fermentation chambers

A

where mutualistic microorganisms digest cellulose
- in many herbivores

88
Q

how many times do rabbits and rodents pass food through their alimentary canal

A

twice
- poo eaters

89
Q

where are the most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet

A

in animals called ruminants
- cattle, sheep
- “chew the cud”

90
Q

digestive system of giant tube worms

A

no digestive system, obtain nutrients from mutualistic bacteria within their bodies

91
Q

enteric division of nervous system

A

helps regulate digestive process

92
Q

endocrine system

A

regulates digestion through release and transport of hormones

93
Q

what hormone is released when food arrives in the stomach and stretches the stomach walls

A

gastrin
- enters blood and comes back to stomach

94
Q

what does gastrin stimulate the production of

A

gastric juices

95
Q

what hormones are released by small intestine

A
  • CCK and Secretin
  • stimulate pancreases to release bicarbonate/digestive enzymes
  • inhibit peristalsis and release of gastric juice
96
Q

CCK

A

stimulates contraction of gallbladder and release of bile

97
Q

where is energy first stored in humans

A

in liver and muscle cells in the polymer glycogen

98
Q

where is excess energy stored

A

fat in adipose cells

99
Q

what type of energy does human body use first

A
  • expends liver glycogen first
  • then muscle glycogen and fat
100
Q

what is central to maintaining metabolic balance

A

synthesis and breakdown of glycogen

101
Q

what is the site of glucose homeostasis?

A

liver

102
Q

what triggers the synthesis of glycogen

A

carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels

103
Q

what triggers the breakdown/release of glucose

A

low blood sugar causes glucagon increase

104
Q

what does insulin do

A

act on nearly all body cells to stimulate glucose uptake from blood
- except brain cells: take up glucose whether or not insulin is present

105
Q

where are glucagon and insulin produced

A

islets of the pancreas
- alpha cells - glucagon
- beta cells - insulin

106
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

caused by deficiency of insulin or decreased response to insulin in target tissues
- cells unable to take up enough glucose to meet metabolic needs
- level of glucose in blood may exceed capacity of kidneys to reabsorb it
- sugar in urine is one test for diabetes

107
Q

type I diabetes

A
  • autoimmune disorder - immune system destroys beta cells of pancreas
  • appears during childhood
  • treatment; insulin injections several times per day
108
Q

type II diabetes

A
  • non-insulin dependent
  • failure of target cells to respond normally to insulin
  • excess body weight and diet
  • generally appears after 40 years
109
Q

how do hormones regulate long/short-term appetite

A

affect “satiety” center in brain

110
Q

ghrelin

A

hormone secreted by stomach wall that triggers feeling of hunger

111
Q

insulin and PYY

A

PYY - hormone secreted by small intestine after meals
- both suppress appetite

112
Q

leptin

A

suppresses appetite and plays role in regulating body fat levels
- produced by adipose

Biology II (43 decks)

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