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Biology II > ch. 49 > Flashcards

ch. 49 Flashcards

1
Q

what do all animals have

A

a nervous system

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2
Q

cnidarian examples

A

jellyfish, hydras, anemones

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3
Q

nervous system of cnidarians

A
  • nerve net
  • neurons connected to each other in network
  • activation of neurons in one area lead to activation of all or most neurons
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4
Q

simplest of nervous systems

A

nerve net

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5
Q

nervous system of echinoderms

A
  • nerve ring around mouth connected to larger radial nerves extending to arms
  • mouth and arms operate independently
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6
Q

nervous system of planaria

A
  • nerve cords extend by length of animal connected by transverse nerves
  • collection of neurons in head form cerebral ganglia
  • perform basic integration of sensory input and motor output
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7
Q

nervous system of annelids

A
  • same basic structure as planaria
  • more neurons
  • ventral nerve cords have ganglia in each segment
  • rudimentary brain
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8
Q

nervous system of simple mollusks

A
  • similar to annelids
  • pair of anterior ganglia
  • paired nerve cords
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9
Q

cephalization

A

increasingly complex brain in head

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10
Q

brain of drosophila

A

several subdivisions with separate functions

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11
Q

brain of advanced mollusks

A

brains with well-developed subdivisions

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12
Q

glial cells/glia function

A

nourish, support, and regulate neurons

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13
Q

what do embryonic radial glia form

A

tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate

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14
Q

astrocytes

A

participate in formation of blood-brain barrier

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15
Q

blood-brain barrier

A

restricts entry of most substances into the brain

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16
Q

what can radial glial cells and astrocytes both act as

A

stem cells

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17
Q

where does the CNS develop from

A

hollow dorsal nerve cord

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18
Q

what does the cavity of the nerve cord give rise to

A

narrow central canal of the spinal cord and ventricles of the brain

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19
Q

what are the spinal canal and ventricles filled with

A

cerebrospinal fluid

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20
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

supplies CNS with nutrients and hormones, carries away waste

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21
Q

gray matter

A
  • neuron cell bodies
  • dendrites
  • unmyelinated axons
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22
Q

white matter

A
  • bundles of myelinated axons
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23
Q

what does the spinal cord do

A
  • convey info to/from brain
  • generate basic pattern of locomotion
  • produces reflexes independently of the brain
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24
Q

reflex

A

body’s automatic response to a stimulus

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25
Q

function of PNS

A
  • transmit info to/from CNS
  • regulates movement and internal environment
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26
Q

afferent neurons in PNS

A

transmit info to CNS

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27
Q

efferent neurons in PNS

A

transmit information away from CNS

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28
Q

divisions of autonomic nervous system

A
  1. sympathetic
  2. parasympathetic
  3. enteric
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29
Q

2 efferent components of CNS

A

autonomic nervous system and motor system

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30
Q

motor system

A

carries signals to skeletal muscles and can be voluntary

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31
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

regulates smooth and cardiac muscles, generally involuntary

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32
Q

enteric nervous system

A

exerts direct control over the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder

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33
Q

sympathetic division

A

regulates arousal and energy generation (fight/flight)

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34
Q

parasympathetic division

A

antagonistic effects of sympathetic on target organs
- promotes calming and return to rest/digest functions

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35
Q

functions of parasympathetic divison

A
  1. constricts eye pupil
  2. stimulates salivary gland secretion
  3. constricts bronchi in lungs
  4. slows heart
  5. stimulates activity of stomach/intestines/pancreas
  6. stimulates gallbladder
  7. promotes emptying of bladder
  8. promotes erection of genitalia
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36
Q

3 major regions of vertebrate brain

A
  1. forebrain
  2. midbrain
  3. hindbrain
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37
Q

forebrain

A
  • processing of olfactory input, regulation of sleep, learning, and any complex procesing
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38
Q

midbrain

A

coordinates routing of sensory input
- receives and integrates sensory information and sends in to specific regions of the brain

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39
Q

hindbrain

A

controls involuntary activities and coordinates motor activities

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40
Q

what does the difference in size of particular brain regions among vertebrates show

A

relative importance of particular brain function

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41
Q

how many neurons and synapses in the human brain

A
  • 100 billion neurons
  • 100 trillion connections
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42
Q

anterior neural tube

A

gives rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain during embryonic development

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43
Q

what form the brainstem?

A

midbrain and part of the hindbrain

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44
Q

where is the brainstem

A

joins with spinal cord at base of brain

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45
Q

what does the rest of the hindbrain give rise to

A

cerebellum

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46
Q

what does the forebrain divide into

A
  1. diencephalon
  2. telencephalon
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47
Q

diencephalon

A

forms endocrine tissues in brain

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48
Q

telencephalon

A

becomes cerebrum

49
Q

what does the cerebrum control

A
  • skeletal muscle contraction
  • center for learning
  • emotion
  • memory
  • perception
50
Q

outer layer of the cerebrum

A

cerebral cortex

51
Q

function of cerebral cortex

A
  • perception
  • voluntary movement
  • learning
52
Q

corpus callosum

A

thick band of axons that enables the right and left cerebral cortices to communicate

53
Q

what does the cerebellum coordinate

A
  • movement
  • balance
  • learning
  • remembering motor skills
54
Q

what does the diencephalon give rise to

A
  1. thalamus
  2. hypothalamus
  3. epithalamus
55
Q

hypothalamus

A

control center that includes the body’s thermostat and central biological clock

56
Q

brainstem composition

A
  • midbrain
  • pons
  • medulla oblongata
57
Q

major function of pons and medulla

A

to transfer information between the PNS and the midbrain/forebrain

58
Q

medulla function (automatic)

A
  • breathing
  • heart/blood vessel activity
  • swallowing
  • vomiting
  • digestion
59
Q

what do the brainstem and cerebrum control

A

arousal and sleep

60
Q

what is sleep for the brain

A

an active state

61
Q

function of sleep

A

essential for survival and may play a role in the consolidation of learning and memory

62
Q

reticular formation

A

network formed mainly of neurons in the midbrain and pons
- controls arousal and sleep

63
Q

function of reticular formation

A

timing of sleep periods characterized by rapid eye movements and vivid dreams

64
Q

bottlenose dolphins and sleep

A
  • can swim while sleeping
  • EEG data suggest that only one side of brain sleeps at a time
65
Q

circadian rhythms

A

daily cycles of biological activity
- cycles of sleep and wakefulness

66
Q

biological clock

A

molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene expression and cellular activity

67
Q

what are biological clocks typically synchronized to

A

light and dark cycles

68
Q

what coordinates circadian rhythms

A

group of neurons in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus
- acts as pacemaker

69
Q

what does generation and experience of emotions involve

A

limbic system:
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- parts of thalamus

70
Q

amygala

A

mass of nuclei near the base of the cerebrum that is most important to the storage of emotion in the memory

71
Q

PET (positron-emission tomography)

A

enables display of metabolic activity through injection of radioactive glucose

72
Q

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A

brain activity detected through changes in local oxygen concentration

73
Q

largest structure in the human brain

A

cerebrum

74
Q

function of cerebrum

A
  • language
  • cognition
  • memory
  • consciousness
  • awareness of our surroundings
75
Q

4 regions/lobes of brain

A
  1. frontal
  2. temporal
  3. occipital
  4. parietal
76
Q

where does cerebral cortex receive input from

A

sensory organs and somatosensory receptors

77
Q

somatosensory receptors

A

provide information about touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and the position of muscles and limbs

78
Q

what directs different types of input to distinct locations

A

thalamus

79
Q

beginnings of somatosensory system

A

receptors located in the skin, joins, ligaments, muscles, and fascia

80
Q

2 types of somatosensory receptors

A
  1. exteroceptive - dermis
  2. proprioceptive - within body
81
Q

where does integrated sensory information pass to

A

prefrontal cortex, which helps plan actions and movements

82
Q

neuron arrangment in somatosensory cortex and motor cortex

A

arranged according to the part of the body that generates input or receives commands

83
Q

damage to Broca’s area

A

can understand language but cannot speak

84
Q

damage to Wernicke’s area

A

unable to understand language, but can still speak

85
Q

lateralization

A

differences in hemisphere function

86
Q

how do 2 hemispheres work together

A

by communicating through the fiber of the corpus callosum

87
Q

frontal lobe damage results in…

A

impaired decision making and emotional responses, but leave intellect and memory intact

88
Q

what do the frontal lobes have a substantial effect on

A

executive functions

89
Q

steps of embryonic development of nervous system

A
  1. regulated gene expression and signal transduction determine where neurons form
  2. neurons compete for growth-supporting factors to survive
  3. only half the synapses that form survive into adulthood
  4. synapse elimination
90
Q

neuronal plasticity

A

ability of nervous system to be modified after birth
- changes can strengthen/weaken signaling at synapse

91
Q

autism

A

developmental disorder that involves a disruption in activity-dependent remodeling at synapses
- impaired communication/social interaction
- repetitive behaviors

92
Q

what is essential to the formation of memories

A

neuronal plasticity

93
Q

where is short-term memory accessed

A

hippocampus

94
Q

where is long-term memory formed

A

links in hippocampus replaced by connections in the cerebral cortex

95
Q

when is some consolidation of memory thought to occur?

A

during sleep

96
Q

disorders of the nervous system

A
  • schizophrenia
  • depression
  • drug addiction
  • Alzheimer’s disease
  • Parkinson’s disease
97
Q

how much of the world’s population suffers from schizophrenia

A

1%

98
Q

symptoms of schizophrenia

A
  • hallucinations
  • delusions
99
Q

schizophrenia

A
  • affects neuronal pathways that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter
  • Amy also alter glutamate signaling
100
Q

2 broad forms of depressive illness

A
  1. major depressive disorder
  2. bipolar disorder
101
Q

major depressive disorder

A

patients have persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most activities

102
Q

bipolar disorder

A

manic (high-mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases

103
Q

treatments for depression

A

drugs that increase the activity of biogenic amines in the brain

104
Q

brain’s reward system

A

rewards motivation with pleasure

105
Q

why are some drugs addictive

A

increase activity of brain’s reward system

106
Q

addictive drugs

A

cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, alcohol, tobacco

107
Q

what is drug addiction characterized by

A

compulsive consumption and an inability to control intake

108
Q

what do addictive drugs enhance

A

activity of dopamine pathway

109
Q

what does drug addiction lead to

A

long-lasting changes in the reward circuitry that cause a craving for the drug

110
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

mental deterioration (dementia) characterized by confusion and memory loss

111
Q

what does incidence of Alzheimer’s increase with

A

age

112
Q

what is Alzheimer’s associated with

A

formation of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques in the brain

113
Q

is there a cure for Alzheimer’s?

A

no, but some drugs relieve symptoms

114
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

motor disorder caused by death of dopamine-secreting neurons in the midbrain

115
Q

what is Parkinson’s disease characterized by

A

muscle tremors, flexed posture, shuffling gait

116
Q

cause of Parkinson’s disease

A

no identifiable cause, although one form is known to have a genetic basis

117
Q
A
118
Q

can Parkinson’s disease be cured

A

no but can be treated
- dopamine-related drug called L-dopa can reduce severity
- potential cure: implantation of dopamine-secreting neurons into the brain

Biology II (43 decks)

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