Learning

Question 1

stimulus

Answer 1

any event or situation that evokes a response.

Question 2

discrimination

Answer 2

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 2

unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 2

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Question 3

higher-order conditioning

Answer 3

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Question 3

shaping

Answer 3

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Question 5

law of effect

Answer 5

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Question 6

reinforcement

Answer 6

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

Question 7

operant behavior

Answer 7

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Question 8

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 8

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Question 8

respondent behavior

Answer 8

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Question 9

observational learning

Answer 9

learning by observing others.

Question 10

negative reinforcement

Answer 10

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

Question 11

extrinsic motivation

Answer 11

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Question 12

generalization

Answer 12

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Question 12

intrinsic motivation

Answer 12

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Question 12

primary reinforcer

Answer 12

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Question 14

classical conditioning

Answer 14

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Question 15

cognitive map

Answer 15

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Question 16

positive reinforcement

Answer 16

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Question 17

reinforcement schedule

Answer 17

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 18

modeling

Answer 18

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Question 20

associative learning

Answer 20

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

Question 21

spontaneous recovery

Answer 21

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Question 22

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 22

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Question 24

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 24

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Question 25

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 25

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response (UR).

Question 25

variable-interval schedule

Answer 25

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

Question 26

latent learning

Answer 26

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Question 27

operant chamber

Answer 27

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Question 28

mirror neurons

Answer 28

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Question 30

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 30

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Question 33

operant conditioning

Answer 33

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Question 34

extinction

Answer 34

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Question 35

behaviorism

Answer 35

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Question 36

prosocial behavior

Answer 36

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Question 36

punishment

Answer 36

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

Question 37

neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 37

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Question 38

learning

Answer 38

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Question 39

conditioned reinforcer

Answer 39

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.

Question 40

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 40

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

Question 41

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 41

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Question 42

acquisition

Answer 42

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Question 43

cognitive learning

Answer 43

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Question 44

continuous reinforcement

Answer 44

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.