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Neurobiology > Lecture 24 > Flashcards

Lecture 24 Flashcards

1
Q

three main subdivisions of the brain and the general region they give rise to

A

prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

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2
Q

two main subdivisions of the prosencephalon and what they give rise to

A

telencephalon (cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia) and diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)

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3
Q

two subdivisions of the mesencephalon

A

superior/inferior colliculi and the midbrain tegmentum

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4
Q

two main subdivisions of the rhombencephalon and what they give rise to

A

metencephalon (cerebellum and pons) and myelincephalon (medulla)

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5
Q

molecular regulation of neurogenesis - deciding to __ or __ is based on interactions of cell surface __ and __

A

proliferate or differentiate; ligands (Delta) and receptors (Notch)

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6
Q

neurogenic decisions are made by influences from __

A

immediately neighboring cells

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7
Q

delta activation of notch leads to transcriptional repression of the __

A

bHLH neurogenic transcription factors (neurogenin)

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8
Q

delta activation of notch also represses expression of __

A

Delta itself

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9
Q

interactions of delta and notch create an imbalance where in some cells __ and in others __

A

delta is high and notch is low; delta is low and notch is high

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10
Q

high delta expression = __ of neurogenin = __

A

expression; neuroblast

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11
Q

low delta expression = __ of neurogenin = __

A

repression; progenitor

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12
Q

cortical layers are generated in a __ manner: __ neurons are on the outside

A

inside out; youngest

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13
Q

the early neocortex contains the __

A

marginal zone

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14
Q

the marginal zone contains __ cells which produce cues (__) to signal neurons to stop __

A

Cajal-Retzius (CR); Reelin; migrating

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15
Q

Alzheimer’s is associated with the __ damage of brain regions and neural circuits critical for __ ( __ dementia)

A

selective; memory and cognition; cortical

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16
Q

the pathogenesis of this disease is complex and involves many __ (3) pathologies

A

molecular, cellular, and physiological

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17
Q

only __% of alzheimer’s people report being told of their diagnosis

A

45

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18
Q

alzheimer’s is the most common cause of dementia in adults. true/false

A

true

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19
Q

what is the biggest risk factor for Alzheimer’s

A

age

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20
Q

other risk factors for Alz

A

family history of alz or dementia, lots of exposure to neurotoxins, history of TBI, less educated, viral infection (CID)

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21
Q

why is less education a risk factor?

A

because highly educated people are more mentally active into old age

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22
Q

what is the gene for Alz and dementia

A

ApoE4

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23
Q

early symptoms

A

short term memory deficits, problems with navigation, word finding difficulty, organization/problem solving, withdrawal, clearly worsening over time

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24
Q

diagnostic criteria for dementia = __ impairment severe enough to cause __ or __ disability in __ and one other domain such as __

A

cognitive; social or occupation; memory; aphasia (language disturbance), apraxia (impaired motor activities despite intact motor function), agnosia (failure to recognize or identify objects despite intact sensory function), disturbance in executive function (planning, sequencing, organization, etc), or disturbance of visuospatial skills (manifested by environmental disorientation and difficulty copying figures)

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25
how long do people usually survive after getting Alz?
average of 8 years
26
what is a common comorbidity that kills
pneumonia
27
structural changes (2)
ventricles get larger, cortex atrophies
28
neuropathology of alz (2)
amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
29
amyloid beta peptides are derived from the __
cleavage of beta-amyloid precursor proteins (APPs)
30
Alz patients show numerous plaques which are composed of __
amyloid beta peptides
31
APPs normal function in the brain is unclear but it may be a __
signaling molecule at the synapse
32
is beta-amyloid build-up necessarily predictive of Alz?
no
33
APP is a __ protein that extends __ (__)
membrane; outward; signaling molecule
34
enzymes cut APP into fragments, the most significant fragment type for alz is __
beta-amyloid
35
insoluble beta-amyloid peptides are __ so fragments __ along with other molecules outside of the cell, forming the __
sticky; cling together; plaques seen in Alz
36
soluble beta-amyloid peptides also damage __ in addition to forming plaques
synapses and dendrites
37
amyloid beta disrupts __ 1. soluble AB binds to __ 2. bindings leads to internalization of __ 3. __ internalization leads to decreased activity in __
synaptic transmission; synaptic sites; AMPA and NMDA receptors; glutamate receptors; synapses
38
presenilins are crucial components of __
the enzymes that work to cleave APP
39
mutations in presenilins cause the overproduction of __
insoluble forms of AB peptides
40
presenilins are __ proteins
transmembrane
41
AB levels can be elevated by __ and/or __
enhanced production; reduced clearance
42
the relative increase of AB42 enhances __, which causes subtle and then increasingly severe and permanent __
oligomer formation; changes of synaptic function
43
over time, these events result in __ (2) and a host of additional biochemical changes
oxidative stress and altered ionic homeostasis
44
microtubules are like __ that __
railroad tracks; transport vesicles and other molecules
45
tau-proteins act as railroad __ that __
ties; stabilize the structure of the microtubules
46
in AD tau proteins become __, which __
tangled; unstabilizes the structure of the microtubules
47
abnormally phosphorylated tay proteins result in __ especially in the __ or in brain structures connected to it, which __
neurofibrillary tangles; hippocampus; displace normal neurons
48
tau is normally largely bound to __ and plays a role in __
axonal microtubules; dendritic spine plasticity
49
accumulation of tau in the soma is associated with __ activation and disruptions of __
caspase; membrane integrity
50
calcium modulates many neural processes, including __ (2)
synaptic transmission and cell death
51
Mutant AB peptide has been shown to destabilize __, leading to an increase in __ which can trigger the __
neuronal calcium regulation; intracellular calcium; death of neurons
52
every gene that is known to increase risk of alz also modulates some aspect of __
calcium signaling
53
decrease in synaptic transmission is also due to a reduction in __ (__ hypothesis)
acetylcholine signaling; cholinergic
54
the basal forebrain is a collection of structures located ventral to the __
striatum of the basal ganglia
55
the basal forebrain is the major source of __ which is widely distributed in the brain
acetylcholine
56
at the biochemical level, alz is characterized by a reduction in __
the enzyme used in the production of acetycholine
57
3 types of cholinergic treatments
cholinomimetic (drugs that mimic the action of acetylcholine, do improve mnemonic function to a limited extent), acetylcholnesterase inhibitors, and glutamate (NMDA) antagonist memantine
58
additional treatments for alz
antioxidants, anti-inflammatories, anti-depressants; estrogen (does not help women); immunotherapy trials; beta secretase inhibitor
59
exercise results in reduced __ and enhanced __
amyloid deposition; clearance of amyloid beta
60
treadmill exercise has also been shown to ameliorate __
the accumulation of phosphorylated tau
61
most cases of early onset (30s 40s) alz are __
genetic and caused by mutations in APP or presenilin genes
62
genes mutated are associated with chromosome __ (same as __)
21; down syndrome
63
more than half of down's patients have __
early onset alz if they survive to their 30s
64
the various mutations cause people to secrete a higher fraction of the __
insoluble AB peptides (mutated AB fragments and/or over production)
65
in late onset alz (65+), there are __ that are associated with the inheritance of the disease
no specific gene mutations
66
formation of AB plaques causes (2)
inflammatory response that kills neurons, and destabilizes Ca regulation leading to excitotoxicity (cortical atrophy)
67
decreased Ach production = less __ | internalization of glutamate receptors= less __
synaptic activity; activity (cognitive decline)

Neurobiology (16 decks)

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