Lecture Final - Comprehensive Flashcards by Ryan Clark

6 Levels of organization of an organism: [know the order]

Chemical
Tissue
Organ systems
Organism

Cellular

- Organ

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6 Levels of organization of an organism: [know the order]

Chemical
Cellular
Organ
Organ systems
6.

Tissue

- Organism

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6 Levels of organization of an organism: [know the order]

Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organism

Chemical

- Organ systems

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__________ – ability of the body to detect and respond to changes in the environment (stimuli; stimulus is singular)

Responsiveness (irritability or excitability)

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__________ – sum of all chemical processes in the body

Metabolism

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__________ – breaking something down from complex to simple

Catabolism

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__________ – breakdown of proteins into amino acids

Catabolism

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__________ – building up from simple to complex

Anabolism

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__________ – Joining of amino acids to form proteins

Anabolism

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__________ – defined as the existence and maintenance of a stable internal environment in an ever-changing external environment

Homeostasis

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Homeostasis – defined as the existence and maintenance of a stable internal __________ in an ever-changing __________ environment

environment

- external

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3 basic parts of a cell -

__________ – outside wall of the cell

Cell membrane

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Cell membrane 4 basic functions:

a. __________ cell’s internal environment from the __________ environment
b. Regulates flow of materials in and out of the cell
c. Maintains appropriate internal environment
d. Plays important role in communication both with other cells and with the external environment

Separates

- external

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Cell membrane 4 basic functions:

a. Separates cell’s internal environment from the external environment
b. __________ flow of __________ in and out of the cell
c. Maintains appropriate internal environment
d. Plays important role in communication both with other cells and with the external environment

Regulates

- materials

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Cell membrane 4 basic functions:

a. Separates cell’s internal environment from the external environment
b. Regulates flow of materials in and out of the cell
c. __________ appropriate __________ environment
d. Plays important role in communication both with other cells and with the external environment

Maintains

- internal

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Cell membrane 4 basic functions:

a. Separates cell’s internal environment from the external environment
b. Regulates flow of materials in and out of the cell
c. Maintains appropriate internal environment
d. Plays important role in __________ both with other cells and with the __________ environment

communication

- external

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3 basic parts of a cell -

__________ – Consists of all contents of a cell between the plasma membrane and nucleus

Cytoplasm

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3 basic parts of a cell -

Cytoplasm – Consists of all contents of a cell between the __________ membrane and __________

plasma

- nucleus

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3 basic parts of a cell -

3 parts of Cytoplasm:
1.
2. Organelles
3.

Cytosol

3. Inclusions

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3 basic parts of a cell -

__________ – control center for cell functions

Nucleus

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3 basic parts of a cell -

Nucleus:

Has information to __________ all proteins needed by the cell
Contains the __________ – genetic material
Dictates type and amount of __________ to be made

manufacture
DNA
proteins

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__________ – groups of similar cells that have a common function

Tissues

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Four basic types of Tissue:

i.
ii. Connective
iii.
iv. Nervous

Epithelial

- Muscle

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Four basic types of Tissue:

i. Epithelial
ii.
iii. Muscle
iv.

Connective

- Nervous

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Examples of Epithelial Tissue: - __________ - Inside of __________

- skin | - kidneys

Examples of Connective Tissue: - __________ - blood - __________

- fat | - cartilage

- 3 Types of cartilage - __________ - (most common) Found at the junction of the ribs and sternum, trachea, ends of bones that form joints

Hyaline

- 3 Types of cartilage - Hyaline - Found at the junction of the __________ and sternum, __________, ends of bones that form joints

- ribs | - trachea

- 3 Types of cartilage - __________ – Forms the ear, epiglottis, larynx

Elastic

- 3 Types of cartilage - Elastic – (has a lot of elastic fibers) Forms the __________, epiglottis, __________

- ear | - larynx

- 3 Types of cartilage - __________ – very little ground substance -Found in the discs between the vertebrae, between pubic bones in the pelvis and in the menisci of the knee (pads of cartilage between femur and tibia)

Fibrocartilage

- 3 Types of cartilage - Fibrocartilage – very little ground substance -Found in the discs between the __________, between pubic bones in the __________ and in the menisci of the knee

- vertebrae | - pelvis

5 Layers of the Epidermis are: - Stratum __________ - Stratum Spinosum - Stratum Granulosum - Stratum __________ - Stratum Corneum

- Basale | - Lucidum

5 Layers of the Epidermis are: - Stratum basale - Stratum __________ - Stratum Granulosum - Stratum Lucidum - Stratum __________

- Spinosum | - Corneum

5 Layers of the Epidermis are: - Stratum basale - Stratum Spinosum - Stratum __________ - Stratum Lucidum - Stratum Corneum

Granulosum

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum __________ – deepest layer 1. Main cells are basal cells – single row of stem cells that reproduce to replace keratinocytes that are shed 2. Merkel cells – sensitive to touch 3. Melanocytes – give skin its color

basale

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum basale – deepest layer 1. Main cells are basal cells – single row of __________ cells that reproduce to replace __________ that are shed 2. Merkel cells – sensitive to touch 3. Melanocytes – give skin its color

- stem | - keratinocytes

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum basale – deepest layer 1. Main cells are basal cells – single row of stem cells that reproduce to replace keratinocytes that are shed 2. __________ cells – sensitive to touch 3. Melanocytes – give skin its __________

- Merkel | - color

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum __________ – made up of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes that migrate from the stratum basale 1. Cells have lost some cytoplasm – look “spiky” when under a microscope, but spines are not present in life

Spinosum

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum Spinosum – made up of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes that migrate from the stratum __________ 1. Cells have lost some __________ – look “spiky” when under a microscope, but spines are not present in life

- basale | - cytoplasm

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum __________ – “grainy” layer 1. Contains keratinocytes from the stratum spinosum 2. Cells are undergoing apoptosis – programmed cell death 3. Lamellar granules – found within keratinocytes a. Release lipid-rich secretion b. Fills in spaces between cells and provides waterproofing

Granulosum

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum Granulosum – “grainy” layer 1. Contains keratinocytes from the stratum spinosum 2. Cells are undergoing __________ – programmed cell death 3. __________ granules – found within keratinocytes a. Release lipid-rich secretion b. Fills in spaces between cells and provides waterproofing

- apoptosis | - Lamellar

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum Granulosum – “grainy” layer 1. Contains keratinocytes from the stratum spinosum 2. Cells are undergoing apoptosis – programmed cell death 3. Lamellar granules – found within keratinocytes a. Release __________-rich secretion b. Fills in spaces between cells and provides __________

- lipid | - waterproofing

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum __________ 1. Only present in thick skin 2. Cells are flattened, packed together, and full of keratin

Lucidum

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum Lucidum 1. Only present in __________ skin 2. Cells are __________, packed together, and full of keratin

- thick | - flattened

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum __________ 1. Most superficial layer; 20-30 layers of cells 2. Made up of dead cells filled with keratin that are tightly connected by desmosomes - Provides extra protection

Corneum

-5 Layers of the Epidermis- Stratum Corneum 1. Most superficial layer; __________ layers of cells 2. Made up of __________ cells filled with keratin that are tightly connected by __________ - Provides extra protection

- 20-30 - dead - desmosomes

__________ : | -Discharge oil into hair follicles

Sebaceous (oil) glands

Oil is called sebum- 3 functions: 1. Inhibits __________ of bacteria 2. __________ and protects hair shaft 3. __________ skin

- growth - Lubricates - Conditions

__________ sweat glands – found in the armpits, around nipples, and in the pubic region

Apocrine

__________ sweat glands – a. Empty into hair follicles b. Secretions contain water and salts as well as fatty acids and proteins c. Controlled by hormones – doesn’t help with body temperature regulation

Apocrine

Apocrine sweat glands – a. Empty into __________ follicles b. Secretions contain water and __________ as well as fatty acids and proteins c. Controlled by __________

- hair - salts - hormones

Eccrine sweat glands - a. Coiled gland, duct goes up to the surface and opens through a __________ b. __________- than apocrine glands, but more __________ c. Sweat is 99% water – also contains salt, antibodies, proteins, and wastes d. Functions: i. Body temperature regulation ii. Excretion of water and electrolytes iii. Protection from chemicals and microorganisms

- pore - Smaller - numerous

Eccrine sweat glands - a. Coiled gland, duct goes up to the surface and opens through a pore b. Smaller than apocrine glands, but more numerous c. Sweat is __% water – also contains salt, antibodies, proteins, and wastes d. Functions: i. Body temperature __________ ii. Excretion of water and electrolytes iii. Protection from __________ and microorganisms

- 99 - regulation - chemicals

___ degree burns – redness, swelling, and pain (sunburn) | Damages only the __________

- 1st | - epidermis

___ degree burns –redness, swelling, and pain, with blisters | -Damages the epidermis and possibly the __________ part of the dermis

- 2nd | - upper

___ degree burns affect the entire thickness of the skin - Appears gray or blackened, but it’s not painful because __________ endings have been destroyed - Skin will __________, but grafts are used because of fluid loss and risk of infections

- 3rd - nerve - regenerate

Burns are considered Critical if: - Over 25% of the body has 2nd degree burns - Over 10% has 3rd degree - 3rd degree burns on the __________ , hands, or feet - -Burns on the face can indicate burns affecting the __________ system

- face | - respiratory

Burns are considered Critical if: - Over __% of the body has 2nd degree burns - Over 10% has __ degree - 3rd degree burns on the face, hands, or feet - -Burns on the face can indicate burns affecting the respiratory system

- 25 | - 3rd

An osteon has (a) a central canal carrying blood vessels, (b) concentric lamellae, (c) osteocytes in lacunae, (d) canaliculi that connect lacunae to the central canal, (e) all of these.

(e) all of these

-Cells found in Bone- _________ – stem cells that develop into osteoblasts

Osteogenic cells

_________ – functional unit of compact bone; each one looks like a cross section of a tree

Osteon

- Osteon - _________ – middle of the osteon - Contain blood vessels, nerve, and a lymphatic vessel - Run parallel to the surface of the bone

Central (or Haversian) canals

- Osteon - Central (or Haversian) canals – middle of the osteon - Contain _________, nerve, and a _________ vessel - Run parallel to the surface of the bone

- blood vessels | - lymphatic

- Osteon - _________ – travel perpendicular to the central canals

Perforating (or Volkmann’s) canals

- Osteon - Perforating (or Volkmann’s) canals - Provide _________ to the osteons and _________ tissue

- blood | - bone marrow

- Osteon - _________ – layers of matrix

Lamellae

- Osteon - Lamellae – Contains _________ fibers that run at angles to add _________ and resilience

- collagen | - strength

- Osteon - _________ – “little lakes” – spaces in between lamellae that contain osteocytes

Lacunae

- Osteon - Lacunae – “little lakes” – spaces in between _________ that contain _________

- lamellae | - osteocytes

- Osteon - _________ – “small channels” – canals that connect lacunae with one another and the Haversian canal

Canaliculi

- Osteon - Canaliculi – “small channels” – canals that connect _________ with one another and the _________ canal

- lacunae | - Haversian

_________ – increase in the diameter of the bone

Appositional growth

Appositional growth: - Osteoblasts near the _________ secrete matrix - Osteoblasts are surrounded and become _________ - Osteoclasts destroy bone inside the medullary cavity, increasing the diameter

- periosteum | - osteocytes

Appositional growth: - Osteoblasts near the periosteum secrete matrix - Osteoblasts are surrounded and become osteocytes - _________ destroy bone inside the _________ cavity, increasing the diameter

- Osteoclasts | - medullary

- Types of Fractures - _________ – bone is broken into 3 or more pieces

Comminuted

- Types of Fractures - _________ – bone is crushed; common in vertebrae

Compression

- Types of Fractures - _________ – usually occurs with twisting of the bone

Spiral fracture

- Types of Fractures - _________ – diaphysis and epiphysis separate

Epiphyseal fracture

- Types of Fractures - _________ – part of skull is pushed in

Depression fracture

- Types of Fractures - _________ – incomplete fracture; occurs in children

Greenstick fracture

- Types of Fractures - _________ – occurs when a tendon pulls part of the bone away

Avulsion fracture

-Five regions of the vertebral column - Cervical – _________ ; __ vertebrae

neck | -7

-Five regions of the vertebral column - Thoracic – ____-back ; __

- mid | - 12

-Five regions of the vertebral column - Lumbar – ____- back; __

- low | - 5

-Five regions of the vertebral column - Sacrum – __ fused vertebrae

-Five regions of the vertebral column - Coccyx – _________ ; _________ fused vertebrae

- tailbone | - 3-5

-Five regions of the vertebral column - ``` -Cervical - -Lumbar - -Coccyx ```

- Thoracic | - Sacrum

-Five regions of the vertebral column - ``` - -Thoracic - -Sacrum - ```

- Cervical - Lumbar - Coccyx

Cervical and lumbar areas are _________

concave

Thoracic and sacral areas are _________

convex

_________ – lateral curvature

Scoliosis

_________ – exaggerated thoracic curve (hunchback)

Kyphosis

_________ – exaggerated lumbar curve (swayback) | -Common in pregnant women

Lordosis

Surgical neck of the humerus is a:

common fracture site

The _________ is the most mobile and most frequently _________ joint in the body.

- shoulder | - dislocated

- Shoulder _________ – dislocation of the acromioclavicular joint - -Usually the result of a blow to the superior surface of the shoulder

separation

Shoulder _________ – head of the humerus slips out of the glenoid cavity

dislocation

_________ – usually results from the wear and tear on the joint surfaces

Osteoarthritis

_________ – inflammation of the joints

Rheumatoid Arthritis

_________ – crystals of uric acid form within the synovial fluid

Gouty arthritis

- four steps in the neuronal stimulation of a muscle - 1. Release of _________ into the _________ cleft (space) 2. ACh binds to the _________ on the muscle 3. Action potential continues on the muscle in the sarcolemma and is carried to all parts of the fiber by the T tubules 4. Return to rest – ACh is broken down by ACHe and action potential is over

- ACh - synaptic - receptors

- four steps in the neuronal stimulation of a muscle - 1. Release of ACh into the synaptic cleft (space) 2. ACh binds to the receptors on the muscle 3. _________ potential continues on the muscle in the _________ and is carried to all parts of the fiber by the _________ 4. Return to rest – ACh is broken down by ACHe and action potential is over

- Action - sarcolemma - T tubules

- four steps in the neuronal stimulation of a muscle - 1. Release of ACh into the synaptic cleft (space) 2. ACh binds to the receptors on the muscle 3. Action potential continues on the muscle in the sarcolemma and is carried to all parts of the fiber by the T tubules 4. Return to _________ – ACh is broken down by _________ and action potential is over

- rest | - ACHe

-Excitation-Contraction Coupling- - Action potential travels along the _________ 1. Causes the release of _________ into the sarcoplasm from the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic _________ 2. Binds to troponin, which causes tropomyosin to move in between the strands of actin - -This exposes the binding sites on the actin

- sarcolemma - calcium - reticulum

-Excitation-Contraction Coupling- - Action potential travels along the sarcolemma 1. Causes the release of calcium into the sarcoplasm from the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. Binds to _________, which causes _________ to move in between the strands of actin - -This exposes the binding sites on the actin

- troponin | - tropomyosin

-Excitation-Contraction Coupling- - Action potential travels along the sarcolemma 1. Causes the release of calcium into the sarcoplasm from the terminal cisternae of the sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. Binds to troponin, which causes tropomyosin to move in between the strands of _________ - -This exposes the _________ sites on the actin

- actin | - binding

- Contraction Cycle - 1. ATP splits – into ____ (adenosine diphosphate) and a _________ group 2. Head of the myosin attaches to the binding site (cross bridge) 3. Cross bridge flexes (myosin head bends), moving the thin filament toward the middle of the sarcomere - -Called the “power stroke” 4. ATP binds with the myosin head, which releases the myosin head from the actin

- ADP | - phosphate

- Contraction Cycle - 1. ATP splits – into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group 2. Head of the _________ attaches to the _________ site (cross bridge) 3. Cross bridge flexes (myosin head bends), moving the thin filament toward the middle of the sarcomere - -Called the “power stroke” 4. ATP binds with the myosin head, which releases the myosin head from the actin

- myosin | - binding

- Contraction Cycle - 1. ATP splits – into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group 2. Head of the myosin attaches to the binding site (cross bridge) 3. Cross bridge _________ (myosin head bends), moving the _________ filament toward the middle of the _________ - -Called the “power stroke” 4. ATP binds with the myosin head, which releases the myosin head from the actin

- flexes - thin - sarcomere

- Contraction Cycle - 1. ATP splits – into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group 2. Head of the myosin attaches to the binding site (cross bridge) 3. Cross bridge flexes (myosin head bends), moving the thin filament toward the middle of the sarcomere - -Called the “power stroke” 4. ATP binds with the _________ head, which releases the myosin head from the _________

- myosin | - actin

- Relaxation - 1. When _________ impulse stops, release of ____ stops 2. Calcium is returned to the terminal cisternae – requires energy (ATP) 3. When calcium is take back by the SR, troponin changes shape and tropomyosin once again covers the binding sites on the actin - -Muscle relaxes

- nerve | - ACh

- Relaxation - 1. When nerve impulse stops, release of ACh stops 2. _________ is returned to the terminal _________ – requires energy (ATP) 3. When calcium is take back by the SR, troponin changes shape and tropomyosin once again covers the binding sites on the actin - -Muscle relaxes

- Calcium | - cisternae

- Relaxation - 1. When nerve impulse stops, release of ACh stops 2. Calcium is returned to the terminal cisternae – requires energy (ATP) 3. When calcium is take back by the ___, troponin changes shape and _________ once again covers the binding sites on the actin - -Muscle relaxes

- SR | - tropomyosin

-4 basic fascicle arrangements- _________ – fascicles run parallel to the long axis; two types

Parallel muscles

-4 basic fascicle arrangements- Parallel muscles: - _________ – thin and flat like a belt - _________ – prominent belly when flexed

- Strap muscles | - Fusiform

-4 basic fascicle arrangements- _________ – look like a feather; fascicles attach at an angle to a tendon; three types

Pennate muscles

-4 basic fascicle arrangements- Pennate muscles: - _________ – fascicles attach on one side of the tendon - _________ – fascicles fan out from the center - _________ – fascicles fan out from more than 2 places

- Unipennate - Bipennate - Multipennate

-4 basic fascicle arrangements- _________ – large origin converges to a much smaller tendon of insertion

Convergent (triangular)

-4 basic fascicle arrangements- _________ – fascicles go around an opening

Circular

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ : (means toward)

Afferent

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ : carries sensory information from the receptors of the body to the CNS

Afferent division

- Divisions of the PNS - Afferent division: _________ detect changes in the environment – eyes, ears, touch, pain, heat, cold, etc.

Receptors

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ = (“away from”)

Efferent

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ : carries motor information from the CNS to the body

Efferent

- Divisions of the PNS - [Two parts of the efferent division] _________ – controls skeletal muscles -Voluntary and involuntary (reflexes)

Somatic

- Divisions of the PNS - [Two parts of the efferent division] _________ – visceral motor system -Controls cardiac and smooth muscle, organs, and glands

Autonomic

- Divisions of the PNS - [Two parts of the efferent division] _________ : -Controls cardiac and smooth muscle, organs, and glands

Autonomic

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ : (resting & Digesting) – generally slows things down (heart rate)

Parasympathetic

- Divisions of the PNS - Parasympathetic : (resting & Digesting) – generally _________ things down (heart rate)

slows

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ : (fight or flight) – generally speeds things up

Sympathetic

- Divisions of the PNS - Sympathetic (fight or flight) – generally _________ things up

speeds

- Divisions of the PNS - _________ – controls activity within the digestive system

Enteric

- Resting Membrane Potential - Potassium has a higher concentration _________ the cell

inside

- Resting Membrane Potential - Sodium has a higher concentration _________ the cell

outside

- Resting Membrane Potential - _________ wants to get out, _________ wants to get in

- Potassium | - Sodium

The _________ gyrus lies anterior to the central sulcus and the _________ gyrus lies posterior to the central sulcus

- precentral | - postcentral

The precentral gyrus lies anterior to the _________ sulcus and the postcentral gyrus lies _________ to the central sulcus

- central | - posterior

Four steps of Action Potentials : i. Resting ii. iii. Repolarization iv.

- Depolarization | - Hyperpolarization

Four steps of Action Potentials : i. ii. Depolarization iii. iv. Hyperpolarization

- Resting | - Repolarization

Four steps of Action Potentials : _________ – both the Na and K gates are closed

Resting

Four steps of Action Potentials : _________ – Na gates open and Na gushes into the cell

Depolarization

Four steps of Action Potentials : _________ – cell returns to its resting membrane potential

Repolarization

Four steps of Action Potentials : Repolarization – 1. When the inside of the cell becomes positive, the ___ channels close so no more can get in 2. At the same time, the K gates _________ and it gushes out of the cell 3. As K+ goes out and Na+ can’t get in, the _________ is restored

- Na - open - RMP