Motivation

Question 1

Why is self-esteem not considered a cause of motivation in contemporary motivational science?

Answer 1

Because empirical evidence shows that self-esteem is typically a result of successful life experiences, not a causal driver of behavior or motivation.

Question 1

What critical issue arises when external incentives are removed, according to Deci, Koestner, & Ryan (1999)?

Answer 1

Removal of external incentives can reduce a person’s intrinsic motivation to continue the task without rewards.

Question 2

Define the three key properties of motivated behavior and explain their significance.

Answer 2

Energy (intensity/strength), Direction (goal-oriented), and Persistence (endurance over time). These distinguish motivated actions from random or short-lived behaviors.

Question 3

How does motivational science differ from common-sense explanations?

Answer 3

It requires objective, empirical data tested through peer-reviewed research, rejecting anecdotal or inspirational sources.

Question 4

What is the central goal of motivational theory within scientific research?

Answer 4

To organize knowledge and explain the relationships among variables, particularly why behavior occurs and varies in intensity.

Question 5

What role do ‘cognitions’ play in motivation? Give an example.

Answer 5

Cognitions—such as goals, beliefs, and plans—shape how individuals approach tasks.

Example: A resolution to read more books increases effort toward that goal.

Question 6

What are the four components of an emotion, and why are they important in motivation?

Answer 6

Feelings, Arousal, Purpose, and Expression—they prepare and synchronize adaptive responses to significant events.

Question 7

How is motivation measured if it is inherently private and internal?

Answer 7

Through observable expressions like behavior, engagement, psychophysiological signals, brain activation, and self-report.

Question 8

Differentiate between primary and secondary needs and give examples of each.

Answer 8

Primary needs are physiological (e.g., hunger, sleep); Secondary needs are psychological/social (e.g., achievement, power).

Question 9

What is the motivational significance of agentic engagement in a classroom setting?

Answer 9

It reflects a student’s proactive role in shaping their learning conditions, showing motivation beyond passive participation.

Question 10

What three interacting variables must be present for motivated behavior to occur, and how is their relationship described mathematically?

Answer 10

Desire/Need, Value of the Goal, and Expectation of Success. Their interaction is multiplicative—if any variable equals zero, the behavior will not occur.

Question 11

Differentiate between Behavioral Dynamism and Action Control in the motivational process.

Answer 11

Behavioral dynamism involves choosing and performing actions to reach a goal; action control involves evaluating whether those actions were effective in satisfying the motive.

Question 12

According to Craig’s theory (1918), how do appetitive and consummatory phases differ in motivation?

Answer 12

Appetitive involves variable, learned behaviors aimed at obtaining a goal; consummatory involves invariant, species-specific behaviors used to finalize the goal.

Question 13

What does the ‘Necessity vs Demand’ principle state about motivation intensity?

Answer 13

The greater the need, the less demanding the individual becomes about how that need is satisfied.

Question 14

How does Negative Feedback regulate motivated behavior?

Answer 14

It deactivates behavior once the desired state or goal is reached, helping restore homeostasis and preventing overcorrection.

Question 15

Describe the difference between Initial, Selective, and Goal-Directed Activation in motivation.

Answer 15

Initial: Triggers behavior upon detecting a need

Selective: Activates only systems relevant to the need

Goal-Directed: Mobilizes specific systems toward conscious goals

Question 16

In motivation, what are the two meanings of ‘Direction’ and how do they differ?

Answer 16

Direction can refer to (1) choosing the goal itself and (2) selecting instrumental behaviors to achieve that goal.

Question 17

What role does Causal Attribution play in the final phase of the motivational process?

Answer 17

It involves interpreting the cause of success or failure, which informs future behavioral adjustments and decisions to persist, change, or abandon goals.

Question 18

How does the homeostatic model apply to psychological needs?

Answer 18

Like physiological needs, psychological imbalances (e.g., anxiety) activate behaviors aimed at restoring internal balance (e.g., taking a break), regulated by feedback.

Question 19

Explain the full sequence of the complex motivational process as described in this unit.

Answer 19

Stimulus

Perception

Evaluation/Appraisal

Goal Choice

Decision to Act

Activation

Direction

Control of Results

Question 20

What are the three main categories of motivation measurement techniques, and what do they assess?

Answer 20

Observable behavior – what a person does
Physiological responses – how the body reacts
Subjective states – how a person feels or reports internally

Question 21

In observable behavior assessment, what does response rate specifically measure, and in what type of research is it commonly used?

Answer 21

It measures the frequency of behavior (how often it’s emitted), and it’s most common in animal research.

Question 22

What are the four observable behavior measures used to assess motivation?

Answer 22

Frequency (response rate)
Accuracy (successes/misses)
Choice (preference among options)
Temporal (response time, persistence, effort)

Question 23

What is the difference between exosomatic and endosomatic electrodermal activity?

Answer 23

Exosomatic: Measures skin conductance with an external stimulus
Endosomatic: Measures spontaneous skin potentials without external stimulus

Question 24

Name three cardiovascular measures used to assess motivated states and what they reflect.

Answer 24

Heart rate – activation/arousal Blood flow – vasodilation/constriction Blood pressure – physical stress response

Question 25

What are two major limitations of physiological measures in motivation assessment?

Answer 25

They are indirect indicators, not uniquely tied to motivation They may reflect other psychological processes, reducing specificity

Question 26

List four types of self-report methods used to measure motivation.

Answer 26

Interviews Questionnaires Self-records Self-observation

Question 27

How can social desirability and self-deception distort self-reports in motivation research?

Answer 27

Individuals may alter their answers to appear more favorable or may be unaware of their true internal states, reducing validity of responses.

Question 28

What is a key advantage of self-report methods, despite their limitations?

Answer 28

They can assess internal motives and subjective experiences that are not directly observable, making them useful for understanding personal meaning and goal orientation.

Question 29

What is one effective solution to improve the accuracy of self-report motivation measures?

Answer 29

Use lie scales or complementary testing, such as pairing self-reports with interviews or behavioral observation.

Question 30

How do physiological, psychological, and social needs differ in terms of origin and awareness?

Answer 30

Physiological: Inherent; arise automatically and disappear when satisfied. Psychological: Inherent; always present in consciousness and linked to growth. Social: Learned through environment; always conscious, linked to identity and relationships.

Question 31

What role does homeostasis play in motivated behavior, and how does it terminate action?

Answer 31

It maintains internal balance; once the biological constant is restored (e.g., food or water intake), negative feedback reduces the drive, stopping the behavior.

Question 32

In thirst regulation, why is flavor significant, and what role does discriminative stimuli play?

Answer 32

Flavor adds incentive value to drinking; discriminative stimuli (like flavor cues) can trigger drinking behavior even without true physiological need.

Question 33

According to the glycostatic hypothesis, what triggers the onset and cessation of hunger?

Answer 33

Changes in blood glucose levels—low glucose triggers hunger, and eating restores balance, ending the drive.

Question 34

How do short-term and long-term hunger regulation systems differ in the body?

Answer 34

Short-term: Blood glucose (glycostatic model) Long-term: Fat reserves (lipostatic model) coordinate with glucose systems to maintain energy balance.

Question 35

Why do diets often fail, according to the unit?

Answer 35

Because cognitive control lacks negative feedback. When disrupted (e.g., stress), it leads to binge eating due to loss of physiological regulation.

Question 36

How is human sexual behavior unique compared to other species in terms of motivation?

Answer 36

It’s less biologically determined and more influenced by cultural, situational, and cognitive factors, decoupling reproduction from sexual activity.

Question 37

What are the three types of facial features that contribute to perceived attractiveness in women’s faces?

Answer 37

Neonatal (e.g., large eyes) Sexual maturity (e.g., cheekbones) Expressiveness (e.g., smile, eyebrows).

Question 38

What does the unit say about the causes of homosexuality, based on research?

Answer 38

It is not caused by parenting style or early seduction, but likely influenced by genetic and prenatal hormonal factors.

Question 39

What are two common failures in self-regulation of physiological needs?

Answer 39

Underestimating the power of drives when not currently experiencing them. Setting unrealistic standards without acknowledging biological limits.

Question 40

How do psychological needs differ from physiological ones in their motivational nature?

Answer 40

Psychological needs are proactive, pushing individuals to seek growth and engagement with their environment. Physiological needs are reactive, responding to biological deficits.

Question 41

What are the three core components that define the subjective experience of autonomy?

Answer 41

Perceived locus of causality Volition Perceived choice

Question 42

Why does simply offering a choice not always increase autonomy or intrinsic motivation?

Answer 42

If the options are limited or misaligned with personal values, they do not genuinely satisfy autonomy.

Question 43

What is the difference between volition and perceived choice in the context of autonomy?

Answer 43

Volition is the internal sense of willingness and freedom to act. Perceived choice refers to having external options and the flexibility to decide.

Question 44

What environmental conditions support the development of competence?

Answer 44

Optimal challenge High structure (clear expectations, guidance, feedback) High tolerance for failure

Question 45

Define flow and its relation to competence.

Answer 45

Flow is a psychological state of deep immersion and enjoyment when challenge and ability are both high, satisfying the need for competence.

Question 46

What distinguishes the need for affiliation from the need for intimacy?

Answer 46

Affiliation: Seeks acceptance, emotional safety, and approval. Intimacy: Seeks warmth and closeness, with less fear of rejection.

Question 47

What are the emotional reactions of individuals high and low in need for achievement when facing a challenge?

Answer 47

High nAch: Hope, pride, approach-oriented emotions Low nAch: Anxiety, fear of failure, avoidance-oriented emotions

Question 48

Why might a leader high in need for power not always be beneficial to group performance?

Answer 48

They may prioritize dominance over collaboration, leading to reduced information sharing and worse group decisions.

Question 49

What are quasi-needs, and how do they differ from true psychological needs?

Answer 49

Quasi-needs are temporary and situational, such as needing an umbrella when it rains. They vanish once the external demand is met, unlike enduring psychological needs.

Question 50

According to the Lorenz hydraulic model, how does internal 'energy' influence behavior in the absence of external stimuli?

Answer 50

Accumulated internal energy lowers the threshold for behavioral release, making the behavior more likely to occur spontaneously—even without a triggering stimulus.

Question 51

What are the two main phases of instinctive behavior in ethological theory, and what characterizes each?

Answer 51

Appetitive phase: Flexible, exploratory actions aimed at achieving a goal. Consummatory phase: Stereotyped, species-specific behaviors that finalize the goal once it is reached.

Question 52

Contrast peripheral theories and central theories of homeostatic regulation.

Answer 52

Peripheral theories: Emphasize signals from organs (e.g., stomach, liver) that drive behavior. Central theories: Highlight the brain's regulatory role in processing internal/external changes and initiating adaptive responses.

Question 53

In evolutionary theory, what determines which behaviors are likely to persist over generations?

Answer 53

Behaviors that increase survival and reproductive success are more likely to be passed down via natural selection.

Question 54

What is the role of drive in impulse theory (Woodworth)?

Answer 54

Drive originates from unmet needs and persists until the need is satisfied, with the intensity of the impulse depending on both internal states and contextual factors.

Question 55

In classical conditioning, how can a neutral stimulus gain motivational value?

Answer 55

Through association with an unconditioned stimulus, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of triggering motivated responses (e.g., salivation).

Question 56

Distinguish between positive punishment and negative punishment with an example for each.

Answer 56

Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., giving extra chores). Negative punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a phone).

Question 57

How does observational learning contribute to motivation according to behavioral theories?

Answer 57

Individuals can learn by observing consequences of others’ behaviors—reinforcements increase the likelihood of imitation; punishments decrease it.

Question 58

What are incentives, and how do they function in behavioral theories of motivation?

Answer 58

Incentives are external goal objects that can energize behavior, evoke emotions, and guide actions toward or away from specific goals, varying in value by context and individual.

Question 59

What is the neurobiological basis of activation in motivated behavior?

Answer 59

Involves activation of frontal lobe areas, sympathetic nervous system, and motor systems in response to relevant stimuli, preparing the body for approach or avoidance behavior.

Question 60

What are the four components that define an emotion, and how does each contribute to adaptive behavior?

Answer 60

Subjective feeling – personal experience of the emotion Biological activation – physiological preparation for action Intentionality – goal-directed function (e.g., escaping danger) Social expression – communicates emotional states to others through facial, vocal, and postural cues

Question 61

According to the two-systems perspective, how are emotions triggered and processed?

Answer 61

One system is innate and physiological, reacting spontaneously. The other is cognitive, involving appraisal based on experience. Both interact dynamically.

Question 62

What does Plutchik’s emotional feedback loop suggest about the causality of emotions?

Answer 62

Emotions are a circular system involving cognition, arousal, feeling, expression, and behavior. Each part can influence or modify the others, forming a dynamic feedback loop.

Question 63

What typically causes an emotion to end, according to Verduyn and Lerner’s findings?

Answer 63

Removal of the triggering event Coping actions that resolve or change the situation

Question 64

How do emotions differ from moods in terms of background, specificity, and duration?

Answer 64

Background: Emotions stem from identifiable events; moods often don't Action specificity: Emotions direct behavior; moods influence cognition Time course: Emotions are brief; moods last longer

Question 65

According to Darwin’s view, what is the evolutionary function of emotions?

Answer 65

Emotions evolved to help animals adapt to their environment by mobilizing behavior essential for survival (e.g., fear prompts escape, joy promotes bonding).

Question 66

What role do emotions play as motivational states?

Answer 66

Like needs and cognitions, emotions energize and direct behavior—for example, anger mobilizes energy to correct injustice or remove obstacles.

Question 67

What is the coping function of 'negative' emotions like fear or sadness?

Answer 67

They help individuals respond to threats or losses, prompting behaviors that restore safety or reduce distress, e.g., fear promotes escape, sadness drives reconnection.

Question 68

How does disgust develop across the lifespan, and what is its functional purpose?

Answer 68

In infants: responds to taste (e.g., bitter) In children: expands to include foul objects In adults: includes hygiene and moral disgust Its function is rejection—to protect the self from contamination or harm.

Question 69

What are the four social functions of emotions, according to Izard and Keltner?

Answer 69

Communicate feelings to others Influence others’ behavior Invite/facilitate interaction Create, maintain, or dissolve relationships

Question 70

What is the core claim of the James-Lange hypothesis regarding emotional experience?

Answer 70

The body reacts first to a stimulus, and the perception of physiological changes (e.g., racing heart) gives rise to the subjective feeling of emotion.

Question 71

What were Cannon and Bard’s main criticisms of the James-Lange theory?

Answer 71

Physiological changes are too similar across emotions. Emotions occur faster than bodily responses. Emotional experience can exist without varied physiological patterns.

Question 72

According to the facial feedback hypothesis, what is the relationship between facial expression and emotion?

Answer 72

Facial expressions provide proprioceptive feedback that can influence emotional experience, either by triggering (strong version) or modulating (weak version) the intensity of emotions.

Question 73

How do conscious and non-conscious perception differ in their role in the emotional process?

Answer 73

Conscious perception involves awareness and appraisal. Non-conscious perception can still activate emotional responses without awareness, especially in rapid, automatic reactions.

Question 74

What are the two key components of the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

Answer 74

Physiological arousal. Cognitive attribution (interpretation of arousal based on context). Together, they produce the emotional experience.

Question 75

What does Lazarus’s appraisal theory add to cognitive theories of emotion?

Answer 75

It introduces primary (relevance, goals, self-esteem) and secondary (coping ability) appraisals that jointly determine the type and intensity of emotional response.

Question 76

What is orexis and how does it relate to emotion?

Answer 76

Orexus refers to the inner motivational drive or action tendency following emotional appraisal. Even inaction can be orexically motivated (e.g., withdrawing to seek comfort in sadness).

Question 77

What are the necessary and sufficient components for an emotional process to occur?

Answer 77

Evaluation-appraisal. Physiological response. Both must be present; neither alone is sufficient.

Question 78

Why is emotional expression not a reliable indicator of internal emotional experience?

Answer 78

Because expression can be: Absent despite strong emotion (e.g., repression). Present without genuine emotion (e.g., acting). Thus, it is neither necessary nor sufficient for emotion to occur.

Question 79

What is the adaptive function of the emotional process according to this unit?

Answer 79

Emotions integrate perception, appraisal, physiological activation, and expression to prepare the organism for appropriate responses to environmental challenges—improving survival and social functioning.

Question 80

What foundational idea from Darwin supports biological theories of emotion?

Answer 80

That emotional expressions and body movements have adaptive value, shared across species to enhance survival and communication.

Question 81

What two major brain areas are emphasized in current neurobiology of emotion?

Answer 81

Subcortical structures (e.g., amygdala, limbic system) – older, essential for basic emotional responses Neocortical structures – newer, contribute to emotional regulation and appraisal.

Question 82

What are the two types of brain organization proposed by Palmero for emotional processing?

Answer 82

Interhemispheric (lateralization of emotional functions between hemispheres) Intrahemispheric (anterior-posterior or neocortical-subcortical coordination).

Question 83

What role does the amygdala play in emotional processing?

Answer 83

It receives multisensory input, connects to memory (hippocampus), attention (basal ganglia), and regulation (hypothalamus), acting as a hub for evaluating emotional stimuli.

Question 84

Differentiate between the short route and long route of emotional processing involving the amygdala.

Answer 84

Short route: Direct thalamus → amygdala; fast, primitive responses Long route: Thalamus → cortex → amygdala; slower but more refined processing.

Question 85

Why are connections between the amygdala and cortex considered asymmetric, and what is the implication?

Answer 85

The amygdala sends stronger outputs to the cortex than it receives; this makes emotional inhibition possible but difficult, explaining why emotions can override rational thought.

Question 86

How does the amygdala act as an emotional filter in relation to the sensory cortex?

Answer 86

It can influence how sensory stimuli are processed, giving priority to emotionally salient information, and triggering responses before full cortical evaluation.

Question 87

What is the adaptive function of the amygdala’s fast-response capability?

Answer 87

It enables rapid reactions to potential threats, increasing chances of survival by acting before cognitive evaluation finishes.

Question 88

What evidence supports the idea that emotion processing precedes full CNS development?

Answer 88

Emotional reactions are seen in infants and animals before the neocortex is fully developed, supporting the subcortical origin of basic emotional responses.

Question 89

What structure plays a central role in coordinating emotional experience with homeostasis and hormone regulation?

Answer 89

The hypothalamus, which integrates emotional arousal with physiological states via neuroendocrine signals.

Question 90

According to Mandler’s theory, what triggers emotional awareness?

Answer 90

A mismatch between ongoing cognitive schemas and incoming stimuli, creating physiological arousal that becomes emotionally labeled once the interruption is perceived.

Question 91

What is Zajonc’s main argument against the cognitive primacy view of emotion?

Answer 91

Emotions can occur without prior cognition; they are automatic, inevitable, non-verbal, and hard to change once triggered—suggesting a primacy of affect.

Question 92

In the new cognitivist model, what role does appraisal play in emotion formation?

Answer 92

It is a prior and necessary step; emotional experiences depend on how a stimulus is interpreted or evaluated based on beliefs, context, and experience.

Question 93

Explain the bottom-up (computed) pathway of emotional appraisal.

Answer 93

Emotions arise from current sensory input, processed in real time, based on the immediate meaning of the stimulus—no reliance on past experiences.

Question 94

Explain the top-down (reinstated) pathway of emotional appraisal.

Answer 94

Emotional meaning is assigned by recalling past experiences similar to the current one, reconstructing previous evaluations to guide the present emotional response.

Question 95

Differentiate between prototype-based and theory-based categorization in emotional cognition.

Answer 95

Prototype-based: Classify by comparing to the most typical member (e.g., a sparrow for “bird”). ## Footnote Theory-based: Classify based on deeper causal knowledge (e.g., whale is a mammal, not fish, due to biology).

Question 96

What is rules-based processing in cognitive emotion theory?

Answer 96

Information is categorized using symbolic or logical structures (e.g., "If X, then Y"), allowing for formal reasoning in appraising emotional meaning.

Question 97

What is associative processing, and how does it influence emotion?

Answer 97

It organizes situations based on subjective similarity or past temporal contiguity, e.g., “This reminds me of that time when…”—emotion is shaped by memory resonance.

Question 98

Describe the behavioral function of emotion as preparation for immediate action.

Answer 98

The system becomes alert and fast-acting, prioritizing speed over flexibility to ensure efficient reaction in emotionally significant situations.

Question 99

How does the behavioral function of flexibility differ from immediate action readiness?

Answer 99

Flexibility enables conscious, adaptable responses depending on context, enhancing versatility and emotional regulation, unlike the reflexive speed of immediate action.

Question 100

How does fear differ from anxiety in terms of triggers and functionality?

Answer 100

Fear is tied to a specific, identifiable threat and motivates direct coping actions like fleeing. Anxiety is vague, associated with uncertain future threats, and leads to general arousal, not specific actions.

Question 101

What evolutionary function does disgust serve and how does it evolve with age?

Answer 101

Disgust protects against contamination and disease. It begins with sensory aversion in infants (e.g., bad tastes) and expands in adults to include moral disgust (e.g., abuse, betrayal).

Question 102

What distinguishes contempt from disgust, and what is its social function?

Answer 102

Contempt involves moral superiority and a unilateral lip raise; it functions to enforce hierarchy by signaling dominance. It is especially toxic in intimate relationships.

Question 103

What key distinction separates shame from guilt in self-conscious emotions?

Answer 103

Shame targets the global self (e.g., “I’m bad”), often causing withdrawal. Guilt targets a specific behavior (e.g., “I did something bad”) and motivates repair actions.

Question 104

What emotional purpose does embarrassment serve in social contexts?

Answer 104

Embarrassment appeases observers by signaling remorse and social awareness, reducing negative judgment and increasing perceived sincerity.

Question 105

Contrast authentic and hubristic pride in terms of attribution and social impact.

Answer 105

Authentic pride stems from controllable success (e.g., hard work), fosters prosocial behavior. Hubristic pride stems from stable traits (e.g., 'I’m the best') and leads to antisocial behavior.

Question 106

How do disappointment and regret differ in attribution and motivational outcomes?

Answer 106

Disappointment arises when outcomes fail despite good choices—focus is external. Regret involves personal responsibility for poor choices and motivates corrective future actions.

Question 107

Describe the two types of envy and their behavioral consequences.

Answer 107

Benign envy motivates self-improvement ('move up'), while malicious envy seeks to undermine others ('pull down')—depending on whether the other’s advantage is seen as deserved.

Question 108

What makes gratitude distinct from indebtedness, and what determines the emotional outcome?

Answer 108

Gratitude arises from voluntary, costly help and fosters closeness. Indebtedness stems from a perceived obligation to repay, leading to discomfort—depends on perceived intention of the giver.

Question 109

What are the two antecedents of empathy, and how does it differ from personal distress?

Answer 109

Empathy arises from mimicry and perspective-taking; it leads to helping behavior. Personal distress is self-focused, aversive, and leads to withdrawal, not prosocial action.