Rest of NJCTL and Class Notes for Membranes & Proteins Section Flashcards
1
Q
(cell signaling) cellular signaling is a part of a complex system of communication that governs basic … and coordinates …
A
cellular activities; cell actions
2
Q
(cell signaling) the ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of …, …, and ….
A
development; tissue repair; immunity
3
Q
(cell signaling) cells within multicellular organisms must communicate with one another to coordinate all aspects of life. single-celled organisms also communicate with one another to perform certain … tasks
A
symbiotic
4
Q
(cell signaling) correct and appropriate signaling pathways are generally under …. and show shared evolution among organisms with ….
A
strong selective pressure; shared pathways
5
Q
(signal transduction) transcription factors are … regulating the initiation of ….. They cause a cell to respond to a … in the … in a very specific way
A
cofactors; gene transcription; signal; environment
6
Q
(signal transduction) this signal is anything that the cell has the ability to respond to. It could be …, a …, a …, …, etc
A
light; chemical; hormone; heat;
7
Q
(signal transduction) a signal transduction pathway proceeds with reception of a …, transduction of that signal through the cell to the …, and finally results in …. of a ….
A
signal; DNA; expression; transcription factor
8
Q
(signal transduction) the pathway starts when a new … (aka …) reaches a cell
A
signal; ligand
9
Q
(signal transduction) external signal activates membrane-bound protein known as a …. These are like … in that they will bind with only 1 kind of substrate (signal)
A
receptor; enzymes
10
Q
(signal transduction) the activated receptor triggers a cascade reaction, a …
A
metabolic pathway
11
Q
(signal transduction) the metabolic pathway produces a specific …. in response to the signal. The product initiates … of a …
A
transcription factor; transcription; response gene
12
Q
(signal transduction) transcription factors initiate the … of additional genes, which coordinate the cell’s …
A
transcription; response to stimuli
13
Q
(regulation) when a receptor receives an external signal from another cell, the response can either be to … or … the … of a specific … within the ell
A
increase; decrease; concentration; molecule
14
Q
(regulation) increasing the concentration is called … and decreasing production of that molecule isi called …
A
upregulation; downregulation
15
Q
(regulation) example of up/downregulation: if no glucose is present but lactose is , bacteria would … glucose receptors and … lactose receptors
A
downregulate; upregulate
16
Q
(regulation) during upregulation, the number of … on the surface of target cells …, making the cells more sensitive to a hormone or another agent
A
receptors; increase
17
Q
(regulation) example of upregulation: there is an increase in uterine …. in the third trimester of pregnancy, promoting the contraction of the smooth muscle of the uterus
A
oxytocin receptors
18
Q
(regulation) downregulation is a … in the number of … on the surface of target cells, making the cells less sensitive to a hormone or another agent. some receptors can be rapidly downregulated.
A
decrease; receptors
19
Q
(regulation) example of downregulation: in type II diabetes –> characterized by elevated levels of insulin in the bloodstream but a loss of …. this downregulation can sometimes be reversed through exercise, and occasionally, a change in diet can also resolve the issue
A
insulin receptors
20
Q
(single-celled signaling) in single-celled organisms, signal transduction pathways influence how the cells respond to its environment. many single-celled organisms live in … with other organisms, responding to signals released by adjacent cells
A
symbiotic relationships
21
Q
(single-celled signaling) certain bacteria use … to communicate to other nearby cells and regulate specific …. in response to …. this is known as …
A
chemical messengers; reproductive pathways; population density; quorum sensing
22
Q
(single-celled signaling) pseudomonas aeruginosa use quorum sensing to coordinate cell … they grow within a host without harming it until they reach a certain … once that is reached, they release a signal to aggressively … in order to overcome the host’s …. the bacteria create a … wherein they form a layer that completely covers the host’s … and then reproduce at an exponential rate. research has shown that garlic inhibits the formation of these layers by blocking the quorum sensing pathway. This is called ….
A
aggregation; concentration; replicate; immune system; biofilm; tissue; quorum inhibition
23
Q
(multicellular signaling) multicellular organisms have physical pathways between adjacent cells to aid in … and ….
A
communication; transfer of substances
24
Q
(multicellular signaling) in animal cells these cell junctions are:
tight junctions: can bind cells together into …
adhering junctions: fasten cells together into …. They are somewhat …
communication (gap) junctions: allow substances to …. from cell to cell. they are totally …. they are the equivalent of … in plants
A
leakproof sheets; strong sheets; leakproof; flow; leaky; plasmodesmata
25
(multicellular signaling) plant cells connect using ... (... in ....) which are ... that allow them to share ..., ..., and ... via ....
plasmodesmata; openings; cell walls; channels; water; food; communicate; chemical messages
26
(multicellular signaling) animal and plant cells have different types of cell junctions mainly because plants have .... and animal cells do not
cell walls
27
(cell to cell communication) protein-based hormones: initiating ... and ..., .../ ... on target (i.e. ...)
complex; target; binding sites; receptors; glycoproteins
28
(cell to cell communication) lipid-based hormone: no specific ..., in ..., don't have any ...
target; membrane; one effect
29
(cell to cell communication) neurons are .... Neurotransmitters, ... signals, are released by neuron A in a certain pattern. Neuron B receives them as a signal for a specific i.... Neuron A is the signaling neuron, neuron B acts as the ...
specialized cells; protein; transduction pathway
30
(cell to cell communication) neurotransmitters are an example of .... communication between cells. in this type of communication, regular chemicals are released into the small space between the cells, a .... these regulators attach to receptors embedded in the ... of nearby cells
short distance; synapse; plasma membrane
31
(cell to cell communication) synaptic signaling: cell-cell communication style; between ..., not ....
neurons; long-distance
32
```
(cell to cell communication) photoreceptors in ...
master pituitary (...): releases ... --> releasing ...
```
anterior; hormones; factors
33
(cell to cell communication) fight or flight molecule/hormone:
epinephrine
34
(cell to cell communication) epinephrine (... effect, but signal is not the same for all cells) released into the ..., where it is sent throughout the body.
far-reaching; bloodstream
35
(cell to cell communication) cell response to epinephrine
hair follicle muscle cell- ..., hair ...
sweat gland muscle cell- ..., .... is released
lung cells- ..., take in more ...
heart cells - ..., more ... to cells for ...
liver cells- release ..., to supply more ... to cells
other responses as well
contract; stands up; contract; sweat; relax; air; speed up; oxygen; respiration; glucose; energy
36
(cell to cell communication) hormones are produced within certain organs of the body can travel long distances through the body to reach different ... in many regions of the body.
Example: hormone testosterone is produced by ... cells, and travels through the blood stream stimulating increases in ..., ..., and the development of ....
target cells; endocrine; muscle mass; bone growth; male secondary sex characteristics
37
(feedback) a feedback loop is the path that leads from the initial generation of a signal to the .... they are the ... sequence in biology. can be either ... or ...
modification of an event; cause-and-effect; positive; negative
38
(feedback) a negative feedback loop happens when the outcome of an action acts to ... of the original signal.
reverse cause
39
(feedback) most control systems in the body involve negative feedback systems. cells send signals to other cells to fix problems they sense. this could involve the release of another signal to ... a problem, or more simply, the ... of the original signal
examples:
... control
regulation of ...
control of ... levels
counteract; shut down; body temperature; pituitary hormones; blood glucose
40
(feedback) a positive feedback loop is one which involves cells continually ... a signal until an outcome is reached. the key to positive feedback loops is that any small change will be ...
amplifying; amplified
41
(feedback) positive feedback examples:
activities associated with childbirth offer two examples:
as contractions happen during labor, the hormone ... is released into the bloodstream. as levels of this hormone increase, more ... occur, until the baby is born which stops the feedback loop
lactation: the more a newborn baby suckles, the more .... this is due to a positive feedback loop involving the hormone ...
oxytocin; contractions; milk is produced; prolactin
42
a metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product. each step is catalyzed by a specific ...
no .. = no ...
enzyme; enzyme; reaction
43
(digestion) humans are ... feeders
omnivorous bulk
44
(digestion) bulk feeders: ingesting
large things
45
(digestion) the human digestive tract is composed of .... it is regulated ... by the ... and the ...
compartmentalized organs; hormonally; pancreas; brain
46
(digestion) cephalic phase- occurs before food enters the ... and involves preparation of the body for ... and ... ..., ..., ...and ... of food stimulate the brain. .... are activated by ... control
eating; digestion; sight; smell; taste; thought; salivary glands; neural
47
(digestion) amylase, an enzyme in saliva, hydrolyzes ..., and glycogen into smaller ...
starch; polysaccharides
48
(digestion) saliva combined with chewing (...) and movements of the pharynx and tongue turn the food into a ..., a ball of ...
mastication; bolus; partially digested food
49
(digestion) the bolus is passed into the .... from the mouth. smooth-muscle, wave-like contractions of the esophagus (...) move the bolus to the .... there the bolus is mixed into the digestive "soup" of the stomach. The stomach is .... and it churns the food into a ..... this is called the ... phase
esophagus; peristalsis; stomach; muscular; homogenized acid chyme; gastric
50
(digestion) gastric phase: the stomach produces an enzyme that becomes active in the presence of acid. to avoid destruction of stomach cells, the active enzyme ... is released into the ... of the stomach as .... another cell releases ... to make the lumen acidic. this activates the ....
pepsin; lumen; inactive pepsinogen; HCl; hydrolytic enzyme pepsin
51
(digestion) gastric phase: ... cells produce pepsinogen, ... cells produce HCl and all cells produce ... to ensure a lining in the stomach that will protect the cells from the products they release. ... breaks down proteins
chief; parietal; mucous; pepsin
52
(digestion) the pyloric sphincter is the transition from the gastric phase to the ... phase. the major change that happens here is that ... is ending and .... is beginning
intestinal; mechanical breakdown; absorption
53
(digestion) intestinal phase: the duodenum is the central processing area for .... the pancreas monitors the food entering the small intestine and releases ... that engage .... The liver and gallbladder release ... that help ..., carbohydrates are given one last bath of .... and the brain is alerted to the influx of ...
incoming food; hormones; multi organ responses; bile salts; absorb fats; hydrolytic enzymes; nutrients
54
(digestion) intestinal phase: the liver and gallbladder release bile salts that help absorb fats. the bile salts ... (make ...) the fat and make it possible for cells to ...
emulsify; homogenized mixtures; absorb them
55
```
(digestion) intestinal phase: the pancreas releases enzymes that breakdown proteins, lipids, and carbs: "
lipase- ...
amylase- ...
trypsin- ...
chymotrypsin- ....
```
fats; carbs; proteins; proteins
56
(digestion) intestinal phase: finally, the mix of enzymes and food move through the intestines where nutrients are ... and undigestible material is released via the ..
absorbed; anus
57
(digestion) as stated, the digestive system exhibits ... control over other systems in the body. this is largely accomplished through communication with the ..., ..., and ....
hormonal; brain; pancreas; liver
58
(digestion) normal blood glucose level is .... per ... of blood. this must be maintained for normal body function to proceed. when the pancreas recognizes an influx of glucose into the blood it releases...
90 mg; 100 mL; insulin
59
(digestion) insulin causes an ... of sugar by the liver to ... and ... at the same time it suppresses ... in the brain
uptake; store; convert to fat; hunger
60
(digestion) if the pancreas recognizes a situation where blood glucose will drop too low, it releases a hormone called ... the effect is the opposite of insulin (... increases and ... decreases)
glucagon; hunger; glucose uptake
61
hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland makes too much .... the condition is often referred to as an ...
thyroid hormone; overactive thyroid
62
the thyroid gland controls how much ... is being produced by the body, by increasing or decreasing the amount of thyroid hormone (T3) that is circulating in the blood. the thyroid is controlled by the brain which monitors levels of thyroid hormone and adjusts its signal accordingly
energy
63
this is known as a feedback loop. thyroid stimulating hormone acts as a ... in thyroid cells that activates the ... for production of T3
co-enzyme; metabolic pathway
64
when the brain has determined that there is sufficient T3 in the blood, it slows the release of TSH so the thyroid reduces the amount of ... it is producing. in this way, the brain is exhibiting ... regulation of the enzymes in the thyroid via release of a .. (TSH)
T3; allosteric; co-enzyme
65
the enzyme at the start of the metabolic pathway that produces T3 requires TSH to work. TSH stabilizes the ... of the enzyme, allowing it to bind with substrate A. Without TSH, substrate B cannot be produced and the pathway is ... The amount of TSH dictates how much ... the pathway will produce
active site; shut down; T3
66
beta cells produce .... --> stimulus is ....
insulin; elevated blood glucose levels
67
alpha cells produce ... --> stimulus is ..., prompts liver to ... more ...
glucagon; declined blood glucose levels; break down; glycogen
68
islets of langerhans: clusters of cells that .... the hormones ... and ...
secrete; insulin; glucagon
69
regulation of blood glucose levels is an example of ... feedback
negative
70
regulation of blood glucose is metabolism in the case of glucagon, as glucose is generated in the liver --> ...
catabolism
71
catabolism is ... and anabolism is ...
breaking down; building up
72
endocrine system consists of: ..., ..., ..., ..., ... gland, .... gland, ...
gene expression in different organs is ... but the actual genes are the ...
hormones; pancreas; liver; hypothalamus; pituitary; thyroid; blood; different; same
73
lipid based hormones enter the cell through the ...
cell membrane
74
receptors for hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, vitamin D, cholesterol, etc, are in the .... This is known because these hormones have a direct influence on ... --> ... influence
nucleus; gene expression; long-lasting
75
.... first messenger binds to ...--> .... --> ... (..., ....) --> ...
ligand; receptor; second messenger; enzymatic cascade; phosphorylation; protein kinase; gene expression
76
coenzyme: in ... with enzymes, e.g. coenzyme in ..., water soluble ...
coenzymes are enzymes themselves --> must be ...
cooperation; cellular respiration; vitamins; protein-based
77
cofactor: essential ..., such as ...
nutrients; minerals
78
induced fit: enzyme changes ... to ...
shape slightly; bind to substrate
79
(catalytic cycle) it is a cycle because it ... and ..., and this process repeats
binds; release
80
(catalytic cycle) catalysts lower ..., stabilizing ... --> proper position of .../...
this raises the rate of the ...
activation energy; transition states; reactants; substrates; chemical reaction
81
(catalytic cycle) catalyst is ... during the reaction
unchanged
82
(catalytic cycle) in early cells, enzymes were made of ... --> used ...
RNA; nitrogenous bases
83
(catalytic cycle) in modern cells, enzymes are a type of ... --> uses ...
protein; amino acids
84
(catalytic cycle) example of an enzyme: lactase --> breaks down ...
particular time when mammals need to break down milk: as a ...
lactase is produced in ... --> stops between ... of age
lactose; baby; infant's stomach; 6-9 months
85
(catalytic cycle) lactose intolerance--> lactase is no longer ... or is not ...
produced; functional
86
(catalytic cycle) ... ending identifies an enzyme
ase
87
(catalytic cycle) enzyme holds substrate in such a way that it induces the
reaction to take place
88
(catalytic cycle) increased concentration of enzyme increases
reaction rate
89
(catalytic cycle) endothermic would refer only to energy as ..., endergonic is a generally ... (e.g. ...)
heat; energy absorbing reaction; photosynthesis
90
(catalytic cycle) transition state: this is what enzymes
stabilize
91
(catalytic cycle) amount of energy released/absorbed ... with/without the presence of the enzyme
does not change
92
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) beyond optimal, enzyme is ....
if this happens to the active site (the active site's ... is change), then rate of reaction would go to ...
denatured; shape; 0
93
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) fevers ... bacteria's enzymes and stop infection
denature
94
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) optimal pH in body is usually ...
6-8
95
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) cofactors: help support ..., helper to bind at ... to make enzyme active
also called ...
examples include ..., ... (not all- mainly ... such as ..., ..., ..., etc)
enzymes; active site; coenzymes; minerals; vitamins; water soluble; vitamin B; nyacin; vitamin C
96
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) cofactors can act as
inhibitors
97
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) competitive inhibition: competing for ..., similar in shape to ....
e.g. CO --> looks so much like ..., blocks ... from function
competitive inhibition can be stopped --> increase ... so that it outnumbers ...
active site; substrate; O2; hemoglobin; concentration of substrate; inhibitors
98
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) noncompetitive inhibition: binds to ..., acts in ..., sometimes ...
allosteric site; feedback inhibition; irreversible
99
(temperature, pH, and inhibition) allosteric regulation: is ..., allosteric activator: binds to allosteric site to ....; allosteric inhibition: binds to allosteric site to ...
reversible; open up active site; close active site
100
(negative feedback) glucocorticoids (hormone) parallel to ...:
corticoids (e.g. cortisol) from ... of ... --> unlike epinephrine, ... response to ...
adrenal gland --> hormone (...) --> released by ..., epinephrine is ... response to ...
epinephrine; cortex; kidney; long-term; stress; epinephrine; medulla; short term; stress
101
ADH is always ... feedback
negative
102
bleeding out --> ... feedback as blood pressure ...
positive; decreases
103
protein-based hormones: typically ... effect, require a ...
short term; receptor
104
(quorum sensing) occurs in ...
prokaryotes
105
(quorum sensing) nucleoid region- ...
1 circular DNA
106
(quorum sensing) ... bacterial cells (....) in/on humans at any given time
humans have ... cells of their own
humans have ... genes, but ... times more bacterial genes
humans ...% bacterial cells, ...% human
10 trillion; prokaryotic symbionts; 1 trillion; 30,000; 100; 90; 10
107
(quorum sensing) prokaryotic symbionts act as an ..., make ..., ..., educate your ...
armor; vitamins; digest food; immune system
108
(quorum sensing) vibrio fischeri: ... bacteria, ... --> made light when ... increased, signal producing ... that makes a ..., receptor on cell surface that molecule fits in like a .... when there is a lot of that molecule on the outside it binds to the receptor which causes the light to turn it on
marine; bioluminescence; population density; protein; molecule; key;
109
(quorum sensing) bacteria communicate with one another --> turn on ...
group behavior
110
(quorum sensing) virulence: in overcoming a large host, bacteria wait until they have ... and ... sufficiently and launch a ... against the host. quorum sensing always controls ....
grown; spread; collective attack; pathogenicity
111
in every species of bacteria, ... of molecule is the same, but .... component is different
- intraspecies communication: particular ... for each ...
left-hand; right-hand; language; species
112
bacteria are multilingula; second enzyme with second signal that allows for
interspecies communication
113
universal communication molecule: small, ...
five carbon molecule
114
new antibiotics that inhibit bacteria ... and ...
2 strategies: one targeting ... and one targeting ...
jam ... of the real molecule in ... (.... molecules)
speech; learning; intraspecies communication; interspecies communication system; recognition; receptor; anti-quorum sensing
115
bacteria made rules for how ... work --> hope is that we can apply what we learn from bacteria to more ... organisms
multicellular organisms; complex
116
(digestive system) tube within a tube, continuous with ... Aka ... & ... associated
outside; alimentary canal; accessory organs
117
(digestive system) tube- where .../... travels
food/waste
118
(digestive system) components: ..., ..., ..., ..., ..., ...- exit for ...
mouth; esophagus; stomach; small intestine; colon; anus; waste
119
(digestive system) exit of waste through waste is ... --> ...- .... muscles
voluntary; sphincter; circular
120
(digestive system) accessory organs: ..., ... - ... (arrangement of ..., suggests what you ...) incisors for ... and ..., molars for .., canines for ...
tongue; teeth; dentition; teeth; eat; biting; pulling away; grinding; shearing
121
(digestive system) accessory organs: salivary glands- produce ..., which has ....
...
...- makes ...(...)
...- stores ... and releases it when needed
....
saliva; salivary amylase; pancreas; liver; bile; salts; gallbladder; bile; appendix
122
(digestive system) two types of digestion:
mechanical digestion - .... breakdown, ..., .../...
chemical digestion- ... action, specific .... breakdown
bulk; non-specific; chewing; mastication; enzymatic; substrate
123
(digestive system) mouth-... phase (what's happening in the ...):
... - food moves into the body
mechanical digestion- ... and ..., ...- ... food
chemical digestion- salivary amylase breaks down starch into smaller ....
"..."- ball of moistened food exiting the mouth, moving to ...: ... control -....
cephalic; head; ingestion; teeth; tongue;; saliva; moistens; saccharides; bolus; esophagus; voluntary; swallowing
124
(digestive system) esophagus: no .../..., just a ..., ... muscular action- smooth muscular contraction, ... --> ...
... sphincter opens and bolus moves into the ...
chemical; mechanical digestion; tube; involuntary; wavelike; peristalsis; cardiac; stomach
125
(digestive system) stomach:
muscular contraction- increased surface area called ...
... undergo mechanical digestion - ...
rugae; rugae; churns
126
(digestive system) stomach: HCl- ... breakdown, ... function as well (killing ...), HCl ..., neither chemical/mechanical can fully identify this
acidic; immune; bacteria; non-specific;
127
(digestive system) stomach: chemical digestion- pepsinogen first produced as precursor ..., activated by ...
pepsin; HCl
128
(digestive system) stomach: pepsin only functions within ..., important because it would ... otherwise
stomach contents; break down cells
129
(digestive system) pepsin breaks down ... into smaller ...
polypeptides; peptides
130
(digestive system) stomach: mucus lining- ..., blocks .... (HCl & pepsin)
protection; harmful substances
131
(digestive system) ... allows for stomach emptying
bolus turns into ...- a liquid version of the bolus
at this point only ... and ... was ....
rate at which stomach empties depends on what you ... and ...
pyloric sphincter; acid chyme; protein; starch; partially broken down; eat; hormonal control
132
(digestive system) small intestine:
3 components-
...- 1/3, where rest of ... takes place, making ... (..., ..., ...)
... and ...- exclusive for ... of ...
duodenum; digestion; monomers; amino acids; monosaccharides; fatty acids; amino acids; monosaccharides; fatty acids; jejunum; ileum; absorption; monomers
133
(digestive system) small intestine: ... duct & ... duct leads into the duodenum
common bile duct; common pancreatic duct
134
(digestive system) bile salts help breakdown
fats
135
(digestive system) small intestine: common pancreatic duct:
... juice
releases large amount of .... to act as a ...
also releases ...
pancreatic; bicarbonate; buffer; enzymes
136
(digestive system) pancreatic enzymes:
... - breaks down fats
...- breaks down carbohydrates
... and ... - break down proteins
lipase; pancreatic amylase; trypsin; chymotrypsin
137
(digestive system) small intestine: ...- lymphatic system, absorbs ...
lacteal; fatty acids
138
(digestive system) from small intestine there is movement into
colon
139
(digestive system) colon: reabsorbs ..., ... live there and produce ... like ..., compacts ... including ... like ... (...), solid fecal matter is stored in the ...- holding tank for ...
water; symbiotic bacteria; vitamins; vitamin K; fecal material; undigested materials; cellulose; fiber; rectum; waste
140
hyperpolarization prevents the signal from
jumping backwards
141
channel proteins are only used in .... --> ...
passive transport; uniport
142
a signal tranduction pathway entails a series of chemical reactions through which a cell receives a ... and executes a ...
signal; cellular response
143
the signal activates a ... on the cell membrane, initiating transduction through prompting a .... which causes ...., constituting the cell's response
receptor protein; metabolic pathway; transcription of gene/genes
144
an example of signal transduction in relation to a polypeptide is the insulin signaling pathway: insulin binds to the receptor protein which activates a .., ..., which activates ... which then activates a ... generating a .... that leads to an ... which reduces glucose levels in the blood as it causes the cells to ...
second messenger; cAMP; protein kinase; signaling cascade; transcription factor; alteration in gene expression; take in more glucose
145
signaling cascade activated by ...., which activates the molecule by making it ... --> basically ... is moved from molecule to molecule
this then forms transcription factors to alter gene expression of the gene that ...
phosphorylation; unstable; phosphate; relates to the function
146
villi increase absorption of ..., ..., ..., and ...
amino acids; monosaccharides; vitamins; minerals
147
islets of langerhans are a cluster of cells within the pancreas that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon. stimuli signal is ....
blood sugar levels
148
beta cells in islets are stimulated by ... blood glucose levels, responding by secreting ... prompting a reaction through which insulin causes cells to ... glucose out of the blood to ... the blood glucose levels to the normal range
elevated; insulin; absorb; lower
149
alpha cells in the islets are stimulated by a .... in normal blood glucose levels and respond by secreting .... prompting a reaction through which glucagon prompts the liver to ...., generating glucose that is then ...
decrease; glucagon; break down stored glycogen; released into the blood stream
150
blood glucose regulation can be encapsulated as a ... feedback response to ..., as the pancreas responds to glucose levels in the blood
negative; external stimuli
