cognitive neuroscience Flashcards

Question

What are the elementary building blocks of the brain?

Answer 1

neurons and glial cells

Answer 2

Neural Coding Synaptic Transmission Neurotransmitters

Answer 3

Localization of Function Topographical Representation Hierarchy of Processing

Answer 4

**Oligodendrocytes** myelinate (insulate) axons in the* brain and spinal cord.* **Schwann cells** myelinate axons in the *periphery of the body. cells contain fat which **insulates** the axons= speeding up conduction

Answer 5

cell body from soma to dendtites tube gives signal from next neuron through synapse

Answer 6

electrically charged voltage gradient ... pressure gradient, ions flow across the gradient -70

Answer 7

sodium potassium pump- ion pumps, uses energy in form of atp takes 3 na+ to outside and takes 2 k+ to inside

Answer 8

because there are nongated na+ and K+ channels which are open all the time. A- is a protien, all protiens are negativly charged and lots on inside of cells so lots of negative charge inside cell

Answer 9

A-> B presynaptic terminal/membrane and postsynaptic terminal/membrane

Answer 10

when a cell gets depolarised inflow of positive NA+ into cell (membrane potential= more postive) reaches threshold the neruon fires an action potential, all or nothing law. After the peak is reached, the voltage-gated sodium channels close, and voltage-gated potassium channels open. K⁺ ions flow out of the neuron The K⁺ channels are slow to close,

Answer 11

1. AP depolarises the presynaptic membrane 2. inflow of ca2+ causes vesicles (contaning neurotransmitter) to bind with cell membrane 3. neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft by exocytosis 4. NT binds to receptor on postsynaptic membrane 5. lots of NT binding to this creates another AP in next neuron and so on...

Answer 12

all nerves oitsde of brain and spinal cord brain and spine mix of two

Answer 13

nucleus, cerebral cortex, gray matter (outside of CC), white matter (glial cells) (Inside of CC)

Answer 14

tummy side (front)- bottom of brain backside (back)- top of brain

Answer 15

front of brain back of brain

Answer 16

side to side spin like ballet bbq table football

Answer 17

combo of hypothalamus, almygdala, hippocampus, mamilliary body, anterior thamalic nucleus 'where emotions live'

Answer 18

left hempishpher and right hemisphere

Answer 19

where neurons live where axons live white matter not stained as no neurons so gray is darker as neurons get stained

Answer 20

The frontal lobe refers to one of the four major lobes of the brain and The frontal cortex refers to the outer layer of neural tissue (gray matter) that covers the frontal lobe part of the cerebral cortex

Answer 21

outer layer

Answer 22

motor somatosensory auditory visual

Answer 23

neurons glial cells (Oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann Cells in peripher NS)

Answer 24

axon dendrites soma node of ranvier

Answer 25

bc of resting membramne potential of -70, ion channels and pumps, electrochemical gradient

Answer 26

synaptic transmittion

Answer 27

across synaptic cleft

Answer 28

the weird body parts thing

Answer 29

See/hear/feel---> Mental representations Mental operations (black box) ---> act (do something)

Answer 30

what happens vs what makes it happen

Answer 31

anything that **'means'** something to an individual eg. the **concept of a 'tree' **( when we see it we know it) we have multiple layers of knowlage We know a tree from seeing it. a carpenter would know a tree from smelling the wood. We know it when we see the word ‘tree’.

Answer 32

Your eyes process the incoming light (e.g. of a tree), your visual system **processes the information** (i.e. a basic mental process takes place), you see the tree = mental representation Seeing the tree triggers a mental process (e.g. ‘avoid’ if you drive a car).

Answer 33

posner's letter-matching task

Answer 34

2 letters on screen if the same (both vowel or consenent) press same if dif press dif if 2 letters r AA dentical = responce time to press same is short if 2 letters Aa= slower AU both vowels= slower SC both consonants= v slow RT vary: technique called chronometry - using time measures to infer the workings of the brain dif Rt reflect the degree of processing required to do the letter matching task. It follows that stimulus identity representations are activated first, phonetic representations are activated second, while categorizations are activated last. Thus it is possible to dissect which mental representations differ from one another, and how complex they are in terms of mental processing.

Answer 35

instead of putting letters simultaniously, he put a time gap between them - technique called- stimulus onset asynchrony found... dif between RT decreased have time to transfer the first lettter into a phonetic-identity (aka work out what it is... vowel??) by the time the secon letter comes we can process ot quicker RT is faster. dont have to process 2 letters at same time, process the first properly so then can react quickler to second

Answer 36

4 letters on screen (1) gap (nothing on screen) letter shows up on screen (2) if is one of the 4 letters press 'yes' if not 'no' (3/4) stage 1= encode stage 2= compare stage 3= decide stage 4= respond use chromomotery

Answer 37

ACHN--> gap--> A (150ms) BDMX--> gap-->M (150ms x 3 as M is 3rd letter, so 450ms) sum = 150ms +450 ms= 600ms sum x 2 (as 2 dif sets)= 1200 ms we still compare the letter against all the 4 letters even if the letter is first and u have already found it.

Answer 38

black box... inside

Answer 39

Posner’s letter matching task

Answer 40

all answers are correct

Answer 41

answers 1 and 3 are correct

Answer 42

Animal research Neurology Brain imaging

Answer 43

record electrode from brain to see which part of brain being used during task (observe changes in voltage or current in a neuron) **Occasionally** used in** treating epilepsy **of the **medial temporal lobe (MTL)** vs **Extensively** used in a variety of **visual and auditory tasks** using a peristimulus histogram

Answer 44

a delimited medium where some **physiological stimuli** can **evoke a sensory neuronal response** in specific organisms. ON center/OFF surround cell: **part of the external world the neuron is receptive for.**

Answer 45

* either * yes * no has been banned * yes * either * yes * either

Answer 46

concussion epilepsey regions taken out

Answer 47

first 3= degenerative nutritional deficiencey

Answer 48

dysfunction in the brain or nervous system damaged connections

Answer 49

electroencephalogram ....attached to the head all to measure electrical activity in the brain. It is used for many different purposes, e.g. epilepsy or cognitive neuroscience, when siezures happen. 6 LT= left temporal LF= left frontal RT= right temporal etc....

Answer 50

understad how auditory cortex responds when we present an auditory stimulus

Answer 51

** Altering the activity of a brain area** by either using *ablation (removing), electrical or pharmacological methods* to establish overall **more normal** patient function. Parkinson, deep brain stimulation depression, obsessive compulsive

Answer 52

defecit interest

Answer 53

memory more close in time/ more recent gut feeling, have i heard this before ??? yes but dont remmeber all the details R is fine F is bad bad fine double dissosiation

Answer 54

true false false true

Answer 55

trauma tumours stroke neurodigenerative diseases eg. alzheimers infections Functional neurosurgery

Answer 56

twins, once in war and one not, both hippocampal volumes decreased over time, not causation but is a correlation, as if was causation the non-war twins hippocampus volume wouldnt decrease CORRELATION MEANS THAT A CAUSES B...

Answer 57

using **light to manipulate neuronal activity** **** **inject genetic construct into specific part of brain** (like vaccination concept) (mRNA into body) cells use mRNA to build protiens, so get an immune responce this construct allows cells to release ActionPotentials **light= channels open= depolarisation= AP control neural circuits**

Answer 58

optogenetics Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) - Low-level currents that result in action potentials under the anodes

Answer 59

blood oxygen level dependant reflects changes in deoxyhemoglobin driven by localized changes in brain blood flow and blood oxygenation, which are coupled to underlying neuronal activity by a process termed neurovascular coupling. Your brain cells use more oxygen when they're working. That means following the blood flow (haemoglobin) shows the areas of your brain that are working hardest. Those areas appear brighter on an fMRI scan. hydrogen Blood oxygenation levels affect the local magnetic fields, which fMRI can detect due to the differences in magnetic susceptibility between oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. because of iron in haem...

Answer 60

1. magnet 2. 45 mins on average 3. makes magentic field vary 4. structural scan of brain for comparison 5. ALL METALLIC OBJECTS

Answer 61

slower dephasing = stronger Mri signal faster= weaker mri signal

Answer 62

Good Spatial Resolution Poor Temporal Resolution:

Answer 63

Good Temporal Resolution: Poor Spatial Resolution: compliments as then its good temporal and spatial resolution

Answer 64

Allows an understanding how single neurons encode specific features

Answer 65

the process by which the mind chooses from among the various stimuli that **strike the senses **at any given moment. - if u dont attend to something u wont feel it

Answer 66

(1953), at a party, lots of ppl chatting around, ignore one person that talks to you and listen to everyone aroud you.

Answer 67

any perception needs sensory input, early selection= ... early in processing stream which are affected by attention ....regestration (first processing stages), perceptual analysis, - have 1000m photoreceptors, huge amount of info, no way our nervous system can process all of those at once, which is why we need selection (selective attention) - late selection= ...its not happening at early stages was argued... it happens when semantic encoding/analysis occurs - argue for this is that we even if attend somewhere which is irrelevnt eg. somone saying our name then exerctutiv3 functions and decisios/memory

Answer 68

problem= outer ears attenuate sound if it hits them, so deflection would be smaller so may not be just because of the mouse. not v controlled (a) While the animal sits passively in the cage listening to sounds (left), the evoked response from the cochlear nucleus is robust (right). (b) The animal’s attention is attracted away from the sounds that it is hearing to visual objects of interest (a mouse in a bottle). (c) The animal is once again resting and passively hearing sounds. The arrows indicate the responses of interest and the horizontal lines indicate the onsets and offsets of the sounds from the loudspeaker.

Answer 69

no matter if you turn your head, if u have headphones u can still hear everything without deflection = 2 diferent sounds/convo coming in each ear 1) horse galloping across field 2) president lincon often read by the fire... they have to repeat what they attend to, listen and remember. -

Answer 70

EEG- over primary auditory cortex everythig over left ear is processed under right cortex and vice verser - play same sounds ythrough same ears but ask subject to attend to one particular ear, they will use more of that cortex, higher amplitude on side of cortex being used. negative eeg signals deflect upward Event-related potentials in a dichotic listening task. The solid line represents the average voltage response to an attended input over time; the dashed line, the response to an unattended input. Hillyard and colleagues found that the amplitude of the N1 component was enhanced with attending to a stimulus compared to ignoring a stimulus.

Answer 71

EEG spatial resolution is rlly poor so cant tell if primary visual cortex with this can see which part of cortex more specifically, so know it happens in early stages. 13.12.14 Mapping attention effects. (a) Topographic map of magnetic event-related fields (ERFs) associated with auditory attention in a selective-listening paradigm. The field map was created by subtraction of the field elicited by unattended tones (in the 20- to 50-ms time range after stimulus onset) from the field elicited by the same tones when they were attended. The arrow indicates the location and orientation of a model dipolar neural generator that best explains the surface field. (b) The localization of the M20–50 attention effect in the brain. When the three-dimensional location of this model dipolar generator (red asterisk) was mapped onto a structural MRI scan (after coregistration of the data sets), the activity was found to originate in the auditory cortex, in Heschl’s gyri in the supratemporal plane.

Answer 72

Auditory cortical responses are affected by attention. Auditory brainstem responses are not affected by attention But: Otoacoustic emissions are affected by attention?- .... if a sound played through ear you have tiny hair cells in ear attatched to vasular membrane which can contract, makes membrane to defelct the opposite direction, going back to ear drum, causing ti to vibrate (essentially a sound) ear emmits the sound. very importsnt in newborns to find out if they can hear or are deaf. What are otoacoustic emissions?- these sounds ears emmit How can they be affected by attention given b?

Answer 73

yes early - dichotic listening tells us info is stilll attended if ignored and not completely ignored.

Answer 74

Exogenous attention (transient, bottom-up, automatic) - cant help but attend to, automatically captures are attention eg. a massive bang - comes from outer world (exo) Endogenous attention (sustained, top-down, voluntary) - triggered by us, if you try to attend something. eg. watching a film attend to whole thing vs lecture 10 mins.

Answer 75

other benefits of filtering out attention valid invalid cueing task by posner face computer screen with square, look at cross inside square arrow appears can point to right or left or can not point any direction if right= shortly afterwards irrelevant stimulus will appear on the right and vise verser. dosent always happen 80% can appear on opposite side, but expect this. click button when target appears measure reaction time RT faster when we expect the target on the same side. faster RT= benefit this is endogenous as the cue gives us hints, we attend to the arrow.

Answer 76

no chnage in external world, only internal world as attention goes from left to right. evidence for... endogenous rlly affects sensory processing in cortex occipital cortex measure event related electrodes. when attend to right and it appears on left= Stimulus display used to investigate sustained, spatial selective attention. The subject fixates the eyes on the central crosshairs (+), while stimuli are flashed in random order to the left and right fields. (a) During some blocks the subject is instructed to covertly attend left (or right on other trials) stimuli in order to detect infrequent targets, and to ignore distractors on the right. . The dotted lines from the head to the screen indicate the direction of covert attention for the different attention conditions.

Answer 77

exogenous mearure ERP over right opccipital cortex when looking at left ear sometimes.. attended info= cued, gives alrger deflection= more processing going on in visuak cortex even oif whats going on in retina is identical.

Answer 78

attention is less likely to return to a location or object that has already been attended to or explored. eg. flashing light you learn to ignore it over time, dont need to attend to stuff thats salient but irrelevant

Answer 79

yes yes yes

Answer 80

dont look at stimulus were attending to eg. at bar reading a book and somone attractive walks in you dont stare cause its rude so look back at your phone but your attention is still with the person. eye contact in tube in london, dont stare so you just monitor while not looking looking at stimulus were attenting too

Answer 81

last 2 correct 2 only exogenous

Answer 82

Spatial attention: attention to a specific location in space, irrespective of what is present at that location. Feature based attention: attention to specific stimulus features irrespective of where they are in our environment. eg. someone u never met before in station, if there wearing a red coat its easier to spot as u can just scan across room for red. Object based attention: attention to parts of an object that spreads automatically to the entire object. eg. if big objects like elephant, outline an object and attend to whole one even if spatial attention is confined on object

Answer 83

spatial attention and feature attention at same time if you find the red o in an array with green x's and o's easier to find if there is only 1. compared to lots RT to identify red is quicker if one pop-out search = 1 conjunction search= more than 1, dont see where it is immediatly, get slower as have to go through all the items.

Answer 84

measure resonse to flash of white square over a green or blue T= feature attended so faster rt compared to red

Answer 85

early selection happens in cortex

Answer 86

Figure 9.12 Two methods by which humans can learn about the aversive properties of an event. (a) In fear conditioning, the aversive properties of the blue square are learned by the pairing of the square and shock. (b) In instructed fear, the blue square is linked to the shock by verbal instruction. In both cases the amygdala plays a role in the expression of the fear response.

Answer 87

measure the electrical activity of individual neurons (brain cells) by recording their action potentials (spikes) find out where is the receptive field of the neuron is recieved from? Monkeys are trained to perform visual tasks Tiny electrodes are inserted into specific brain areas the monkey is cued to shift its attention from one part of the visual field to another. When the monkey directs attention to a particular object or location, neurons that are sensitive to that part of the visual field tend to fire more rapidly.

Answer 88

you can record multiple neurons which fire alot more AP indicated by each vertical line. that neuron illicited as a function of time after stimulus onset. **neurons fire more AP when monkey attends to receptive field vs when he ignores it** neurons fire more when stimulus inreceptive firld is attended to, leading to EEG effects (millions of neurons) we look at what one neuron does.

Answer 89

fMRI in conjunction with retinotopy Figure 12.21 Stimuli and task used in a spatial attention study. Two conditions of attention are shown: attention left (a) and attention right (b). Subjects viewed rapid sequences of arrays of nonsense symbols (flashed for 100 ms) while maintaining fixation of their eyes on a central fixation spot (yellow box with red dot). The arrays were presented with stimulus onset asynchronies (soa) that varied between 250 and 550 ms. There were always two symbols in the left and two in the right visual hemifield in locations marked by an outline rectangle. The task was to detect and press a button when the symbols in a pair at the attended location matched (labeled “Target”). In the figure (but not in the actual experiment) the focus of covert spatial attention is indicated by a circle.

Answer 90

Retinotopic mapping when visual information from the retina (the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye) is mapped onto specific areas of the brain, especially the visual cortex.

Answer 91

... fMRI is used to map out how different parts of the visual field correspond to different areas of the visual cortex, allowing researchers to see how the brain processes visual information spatially. right external world is processed in the left side of brain and vise verser ... use boxes to represent the V1, v2 etc... record responces of cells that represenr that Schematic drawing of stimuli used to map demarcation of visual areas in human cortex Representation of visual space in human cortex as measured using fMRI Cartoon of visual areas present in human cortex as delineated by means of fMRI

Answer 92

measure strengt of bold signal in v1, v2 etc and find that attention effects processing in the LGn and can pinpoint in v1,v2 as we have retintopically mapped them

Answer 93

yes - brain yes - fmri yes - attention

Answer 94

record from a monkey in v2 or v4 where receptive fields become bigger so you can identify 2 stimuli in a receptive field at same time so you attend to the prefered stimulus.

Answer 95

monkey fixates centrally and no other task 2 -yellow... present stimuus inside receptive field which is irrelevant to monkey - get some resoponse 1- red... if present prefered stimulis get bigger responce present both stimuli at once= (like 1 alot and 2 a bit) gives intermediate responce - attention tells which of the 2 stimuli ger to dominate the respoince, biases which ones are listened too.

Answer 96

The right now shows the average activity after stimulus onset for 2 conditions performed consecutively, namely when a preferred stimulus is shown (as previous slide, red) , and when a non-preferred stimulus is presented (i.e. yielding low responses [yellow line]). If both stimuli are shown simultaneously, an intermediate response is elicited, i.e. although both stimuli individually excite the cell, the presence of the non-preferred stimulus suppresses the response to the preferred stimulus := competition. The competition can be won by the stimulus the animal attends to.

Answer 97

resources suppress their competitors.

Answer 98

attention fmri biased

Answer 99

1) feature encoding... specialized areas of the brain that break down and process specific elements of sensory information eg. visual system= PVC (V1), v2.... etc 2) Visual Processing Hierarchy .. ventral stream= colour shape and texture .. dorsal stream= objecgt location depth...

Answer 100

the dorsal and ventral stream dorsal= “Where is it?” and “How do I interact with it?” ventral= “What is it?”

Answer 101

brain prioritizes specific features of stimuli in the environment while filtering out irrelevant information. .. associated with increased activity in particular areas of the brain that represent those features

Answer 102

V1 is the first area of the visual cortex that processes visual information V4 is critical for color perception and the analysis of complex shapes and patterns.

Answer 103

we have cueing valid and invalid cuing arrow either pointing to left or right, locations of holes dont change but some have holes and if so press button does rt dif depend on whetehr or not uncued change happens on same object? - Object representations can modulate spatial attention. Enhancement of the attended stimulus. Suppression of the unattended stimulus.

Answer 104

drawings of boxes with reinotpical mapping, computer screen, are of v where neurons fire.

Answer 105

task, monkey attended to either receptive field of the study or elsewhere when was receptive, lots of black dots= representing an action potential fewer AP dots ehen monkey didnt attend to receptive field.

Answer 106

different stimuli in the visual field compete for neural representation, and this competition is biased in favor of stimuli that are behaviorally relevant or attended to. we focus our attention on a particular object or location, the neural processing of that object is enhanced, while the processing of other, non-relevant stimuli is suppressed.

Answer 107

object features, colour, shape represented in ventral pathway spatial features like depth in dorsal pathway if we attend tpo motion of stimulus, dosral pathway gets activated if we attend to colour of object ventral pathway activated.

Answer 108

computer screen shows pointers of cues where likley change is going to happen. eg. arrow pointing to left corner something in left corner will change. figure slide 4 When we attend to one part of an object, the rest of the object also receives enhanced processing, even if it's not in the spotlight of attention.

Answer 109

attention is not only directed to specific locations in space (as in spatial attention), but also to entire objects as coherent units. when we focus our attention on an object, all parts of that object are processed more thoroughly than the surrounding environment, even if parts of the object are not in the center of the attentional focus.

Answer 110

Model of executive control systems and the way in which visual cortex processing is affected by the top-down control of a network of brain areas.

Answer 111

enhancing the representation of relevant stimuli and suppressing irrelevant or distracting information. brain to efficiently allocate resources to process important sensory inputs while ignoring others

Answer 112

yes, The primary forms of attention—selective attention, divided attention, and sustained attention—are associated with different cognitive demands and contexts, leading to the recruitment of specific brain regions and networks. Here’s a breakdown of how various forms of attention correspond to distinct neural networks:

Answer 113

midbrain= early stages of attention, particularly in the orienting and alerting phases. cortical= higher-level cognitive processes related to attention, including selective, sustained, and divided attention

Answer 114

frontal= executive functions, including attention regulation. parietal= spatial attention and integrating sensory information temporal= processing of auditory information and object recognition.

Answer 115

- we need ppl to attend to a location for an exptended period of time, without anything happening in the external world that triggers responces, because we want the attentional signal to be high. to activate attentional areas. - in fMRI experiment- present a cue, this is an endogenous cue pointing to right, pointing to target. long delay = blood flow neeeds to change, need signal to build up to stay there so we can reliably record. - present stimulus, activating all our visual areas. show target and press button, activating motor areas. attentional then sensory then motor

Answer 116

this allows us to identify which areas are part of the attentional control network. areas attending 8s, when active can measure responces. Response related to cue offset Delineates the attentional control network Response related to stimulus onset => Delineates areas activated by stimulus and task

Answer 117

specific neural networks that coordinate cognitive functions, facilitating the regulation of attention and other cognitive processes the cognitive and neural mechanisms involved in identifying and responding to relevant stimuli (targets) in the environment. Attentional control network activated in response to an attention-directing spatial cue and identified using event-related fMRI in a cuing paradigm.

Answer 118

i.e. these areas (blue) are involved in attentional control. = dlf: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex = Inferior Parietal Lobule = Superior Temporal Sulcus =Posterior Cingulate Cortex =Medial Frontal Cortex The areas highlighted in red/yellow of the previous slide became only active when the stimulus was presented, i.e. they are involved in stimulus processing, but not in directing attention (even if their activity can be modulated by attention).

Answer 119

= “Top-down”, fronto-parietal network for voluntary attentional control = “Bottom-up” network for novelty and attentional reorienting

Answer 120

You may recall that two main types of attention exist: Bottom-up attention and top-down attention. Are they controlled by the same control system? The answer is no. .... more lateral parts of the parietal and frontal cortex are active to direct attention. .... more medial parts of the parietal and frontal cortex are active to direct attention.

Answer 121

motor attention sensory

Answer 122

consist of superior colliculus Brain regions involved in early visual processing (introducing the superior colliculus)

Answer 123

snakes... So far the focus of our analysis was on areas in the cortex that mediate attention. But more ancient parts of the brain are also involved. This is not surprising, as attention is vital for many animals even if they do not have a cortex (e.g. birds, reptiles, amphibia, fish,….) A part in the midbrain, called the superior colliculus is very important in directing attention and directing our eyes so that we look at what is relevant to us. The location of the superior colliculus in the brain is shown in the previous slide.

Answer 124

record from SC, mokneys fixate on centre of screen, present a stimulus, in receptive field, get action potentials. Experimental setup and responses of the superior colliculus for different conditions

Answer 125

...It integrates sensory information and helps allocate attention to relevant stimuli in the environment Left lateral view of macaque monkey brain. The intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in the parietal lobe is shown retracted to reveal the depths of the sulcus, which contains several distinct areas. One of these distinct areas, the lateral intraparietal area (LIP).

Answer 126

monkey, human, human, superior colliculus, frontal and the parietal cortex.

Answer 127

Neglect and extinction are both disorders that involve attentional deficits, typically following brain injury, particularly to the parietal lobe. =individuals fail to respond to or acknowledge stimuli on one side of their body or visual field, typically the left side, following right hemisphere damage. =person can perceive stimuli presented to both sides of their visual field when presented separately but fails to acknowledge stimuli on one side when both sides are presented simultaneously.

Answer 128

stroke affecting the right hemisphere , left and right visual field,right, extinction

Answer 129

differs, objects in a part of the external world. = A patient might eat food only from the right side of their plate, ignoring the left side as though it doesn’t exist. Even though their left-side vision and movement are intact, they behave as though food on the left side is not there.

Answer 130

Lateral view of the right hemisphere, showing the major anatomical regions implicated in neglect, including the temporoparietal junction (TPJ), angular gyrus, supramarginal gyrus, and superior temporal gyrus.

Answer 131

damage to the right hemisphere of the brain, particularly in areas involved in spatial awareness and attention. ...failure to attend to stimuli on the contralateral (opposite) side, typically the left side.

Answer 132

the greatest overlap in the superior temporal gyrus (STG), especially in the inferior parietal lobule (IPL). (many patients with neglect have damage in that particular area.)

Answer 133

= Right Inferior Parietal Lobule (IPL): = right Premotor Cortex = Right Parietal Lobe = Right Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG)

Answer 134

damage to the right hemisphere, leads to a failure to attend to stimuli on the opposite (usually left) side of space. Right Inferior Parietal Lobule (IPL): Temporoparietal Junction (TPJ): Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG):

Answer 135

impairments in memory and attention processes, often resulting from damage to brain networks involved in maintaining and directing focus over time. ... Common causes of attentional memory deficits include brain injury, aging, and neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease or traumatic brain injury (TBI). Visual recollections of two ends of an Italian piazza by a neglect patient.

Answer 136

Neglect is not restricted to visual perception of actual objects. It also occurs in the domain of memory. In this study memory neglect was tested for known spaces. The patient had a neglected side in visual memory (shaded gray), which was contralateral to the side with cortical damage. If the patient was asked to turn around the neglected memory side turned as well.

Answer 137

dorsal attention network (DAN) - goal-directed, top-down attention and the ventral attention network (VAN).- stimulus-driven, bottom-up attention

Answer 138

Learning: process of information acquisition * Memory: The result of acquired (and stored) information.

Answer 139

* Encoding (acquisition and consolidation, conciously or subconciosuly go over aquired info to help store it) * Storage (representation of the acquired and consolidated information) * Retrieval: utilization of stored information to perform specific acts (use memorized items to recreate events of the past or perform motor acts). 3

Answer 140

long term and sensorymemory/short term memory/ working memory

Answer 141

declarative (explicit) and non declarative (implicit)

Answer 142

events (episodic memory, specific personal) and facts (semantic memory, world knowlage)

Answer 143

procedural memory (skills, motor and cog), perceptual representation system(perceptual priming) , classic conditioning, nonassosiative learning (habituation, sensitization).

Answer 144

medial temporal lobe, middle diencephalon and neocortex

Answer 145

basal ganglia and sceletal muscle, perceptual and assosiation neocortex, cerebellum, reflex pathways

Answer 146

ms to s , high, no, primarily decay s to m, limited 7+-2 , yes, primarily decay days to years, high, no, primarily inteference days to years, high, yes, primarily interference

Answer 147

iconic (visual) and echonic (auditory, operates unconsciously. However, even though we are not consciously aware of it while it happens, we can become aware of it or recall it shortly afterward.eg. echonic with eeg

Answer 148

half-paying attention to a conversation or a lecture. Suppose you're daydreaming or distracted while someone is speaking to you. They suddenly ask, "Did you hear what I just said?" Even though you weren't fully listening, you can often still recall the last few words they said,

Answer 149

- Hierarchical modal model - 3 component working memory model

Answer 150

Main ideas: * Discrete stages of memory. * Attention and rehearsal required to establish long term memory. * Serial processing steps. serial in nature- if one event dosent happen the next cant happen!!! Prediction: no short term memory means no long term memory! **sensory inputs-> sensory register (attention) -> short term storage (rehersal) -> long term storage** *The Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory. Sensory information enters the information-processing system and is first stored in a sensory register. Items that are selected via attentional processes are then moved into short-term storage. With rehearsal, the item can move from short-term to long-term storage*

Answer 151

1) **Sensory memory**: automatic, short lived (seconds), large storage capacity 2) **Short term memory**: short lived (seconds to minutes), limited capacity. 3) **Working memory** : similar to short term memory, but memory content is more active (manipulated for active use). 4) **Long term memory**: long lived, unlimited capacity ) DO NOT confuse sensory and short term memory! ) DO NOT confuse short term and working memory!

Answer 152

top= visuospatial sketchpad middle= central executive (selection mechanism, attend to some info ignore others) bottom= phonological loop (auditory) not serial, process happen in parallel. *Proposal: Working memory is distinct from STM, as it operates on memory content, and can use sensory information as well as information retrieved from memory. The model consists of a three parts working memory system which has a central executive that controls two subordinate systems: the phonological loop, by which information can be phonologically (acoustically) coded in working memory; and the visuospatial sketch pad, by which information is visually coded in working memory. 11*

Answer 153

phonological loop (auditory)= BA44 and supramarginal gryrus visuospatial scetchpad= parietal lobe frontal lobe= working memory

Answer 154

1) verbal memory task or spatial memory task 2) verbal area 44 ights up 3) spatial other side o brian lights up Changes in local cerebral blood flow, measured with positron emission tomography for verbal (a) and spatial (b) working memory tasks in healthy volunteers. In each part the views of the cortical surface show the left hemisphere (left); superior (dorsal) surface of both hemispheres, with the frontal lobe at the top (middle); and right hemisphere (right). 13

Answer 155

Key points: Memory models 1) Modal Memory Model: 4 stages of processing; serial processing; if there are deficits at any one stage, the next stage will not operate properly. 2) Working Memory Model: 3 stages of processing; at least in parts parallel processing. A central executive handles the information and holds it in working memory. The latter is similar, but not identical to Short-term-memory. 14

Answer 156

Declarative and Nondeclarative Verbal * Explicit memory for o Events o Facts o Relationships Nonverbal * Implicit memory for o Priming o Conditioning o Habituation o Sensitization o Procedural memory

Answer 157

non verbal/non-declarative – not supported by medialtemporal lobe, suported by basal ganglia Procedural learning of sequences in the serial reaction-time task.(clicking dif buttons for diferent sequences) Procedural learning of sequences in the serial reaction-time task. Over time, subjects’ reaction time to the repeating sequence becomes faster as compared to a sequence that is totally random, although they apparently have no knowledge that any pattern exists ( they dont know that they are being given the same one on repeat- not concious) over time reaction time decreases- better at task eithout knowing underlying structure.

Answer 158

Priming refers to a change in the response to a stimulus, or in the ability to identify a stimulus, following prior exposure to that stimulus **previous exposure makes you faster at filling in stuff subconsiously. ** – Word fragment task eg= given word list after a while given some priming of perceptual cues eg. _ic__p conceptual cues eg. 'medicine cured.....)

Answer 159

fat dog sees a certail sound/or sees you walking and sees that as a cue for food and salvate * US= food, dont need to pair with something to salvate * CS= bell, alone nothing happens * US and CS= when bell conditioned with food salvates forming a * UR= food causes salvating. * CR= salvates when bell rings

Answer 160

A= loss of memory AA= amnesia for future, inability to learn new things RA= amnesia for past, forget things from past

Answer 161

incurable epilepsy new source was in hippocampus and medial temproal lobe decided to remove most of hippocampus both he suffered from complete anteriograde and some retrograde episodic amnesia. H.M.’s Brain Coronal MRI scans of H.M.’s brain Region of the medial temporal lobe actually removed from H.M.

Answer 162

requires, what and where and when then get 'relational memory' HM had none of these structures so he had no episodic memory what and where = process in parts of medial temporal lobe parahippocampal cortex (where) Perirhinal cortex (what) The hippocampus integrates the "what" and "where," helping us form complete episodic memories that combine both the details and the context of experiences.

Answer 163

Delayed Nonmatch to Sample (1) sample phase= The monkey is shown two cards on a tray. One of the cards has a piece of food (e.g., a grape) underneath it. The monkey is allowed to lift the card with the food, eat it, and become familiar with the object (the sample card). delay= After the monkey has eaten the food, the cards are taken away, and a delay is introduced. Test Phase (Non-Match Choice)= monkey is presented with the sample card (the card it saw earlier) and a new card (non-matching object). Only one of these cards will have a piece of food under it. To get the food, the monkey must choose the non-matching card (the new card that it did not see during the sample phase). This means the monkey needs to remember the original card and select the other one in order to obtain the food reward. must remember the card it saw previously (the "what" component of memory) and avoid choosing it, opting instead for the new, non-matching card. 8s= stm 15s = transition to LTM 10 minutes the performance foes to chance level (50% randomly pick)

Answer 164

form of amnesia often associated with chronic alcohol abuse and thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency mammilary bodies= mammillary bodies (part of the hypothalamus) often undergo atrophy or degeneration dorsomedial nucleus of thalamus= also experiences degeneration symptoms= Severe memory deficits, especially for recent events (anterograde amnesia). Confabulation (making up stories to fill memory gaps). Diagrammatic coronal section of the brain at the level of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus, mammillothalamic tract, and the rostral portion of the crus cerebri. The dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies are damaged in Korsakoff’s syndrome. It is caused by vitamin B1 difficiency

Answer 165

patient EE who had brain cancer, which was removed, part of brain removed was where short term auditory memory takes place (angular gyrus -affecting left superior temporal and left inferior parietal cortex), did selective short term memory tasks- (digit span 1-2) stm severly impaired, but long term memory unaffected.

Answer 166

EE= no stm but ltm HM= had STM but no LTM double dissosiation Contrast Patient E.E. with patient H.M (no LTM, hippocampal lesion): 1. It is not a true double dissociation, as EE had not entirely lost his STM. 2. More on this in the seminar relating to memory systems

Answer 167

particularly for declarative memory, which includes episodic (events and experiences) and semantic (facts and knowledge) memory. However, it does not typically cause anterograde amnesia for all forms of memory.

Answer 168

Drawings from memory by patient H.M. of the house where he lived beginning 5 years after his surgery.

Answer 169

place preferences are a form *yet another form of memory spared by hippocampal damage Testing amnesia patients for ability to learn new information. Investigators read lists of words to amnesic patients. Then, one hour later, the words were read again together with new words that had not been in the previous reading.*

Answer 170

A technique that allows to measure brain activation during retrieval. A behavioural test that separates different forms of memory (familiarity, recollection and source recollection).

Answer 171

word in green= small or big (left finger for big, right for small) word in red= is it alive or inanimate (left finger for alive, right if not) do task fo putting fingers up day later do retrieval see some words again and some new say... 6= v familiar 1= very unfamiliar scale 1-6 get confidence ratings= old word good at remembering

Answer 172

related to recognition confidence Behavioral results of testing for involvement of the hippocampus in information encoding. Mean proportions of studied (“old”) and unstudied (“new”) items endorsed at each confidence. After we collect the behavioural results, we go back to the fMRI data at encoding, and we ask: 1. What was the activity if later we gave a confidence rating of 6? 2. What was the activity if later we gave a confidence rating of 5? 3. .... 4. What was the activity if later we gave a confidence rating of 1?

Answer 173

entorhinal cortex

Answer 174

participents see an image presented on a screen which either has a green or a red background participents arent told its a memory test but if they see a word on a green background you make a size judgement (left arrow for small, right for big) if the background is red you have to make an animacy judgment (is it alive or not) participents scanned for fMRI while doing the discrimination phase after the scan phase patients asked to make a confidence judgment on have they seen this word before- retrieval phrase (done outside fo a scanner) to see strength of confidence judgment. some new words added some old. to test false positives. 6= v strong 1= dont remmeber seeing also asked to make source judgments- green or red size or animacy judgment fine fam

Answer 175

look at areas of the brain that show a signal that correlates with recognition confidence. the participants were asked to rate on the recognition scale from 1-6 how confident they are that they saw that word yesturday? looked at how strong the signal was in the entorhinal cortex (near the hippocampus) found= when participants had low regognition of an image the activity in that region was low ,, when high recognition= activity in brain was high. (during encoding)

Answer 176

in the entorhinal cortex, activity strenght determines how familiar items are to us in the future. Activity during encoding that correlates with the confidence of recognizing an item (later) as having been seen before. Functional-MRI activations that correlated with confidence ratings can be seen in the entorhinal cortex

Answer 177

b for a butcher the source would be the butcher shop, context would be red or green backgrounds

Answer 178

recollection tends to be a binary thing, you either do remember the whole episode or not. familiarity is i think i saw... graded from unfamiliar to very familiar but dont expliciity remember the context in which i saw it.

Answer 179

good evidence as shows for these 2 regions, at the time memory was encoded, their was a really strong signal if memory is subsequently remembered as correct. short term recolection 24hrs. the medial temporal lobe, hippocampus and posterior hippocampul gyrus in memory encoding and retrieval Sagittal section through the right medial temporal lobe. Two regions in the medial temporal lobe that exhibited subsequent recollection effects were the posterior hippocampus (shown within the red square) and the posterior parahippocampal cortex (yellow square). The plots for the parahippocampal cortex and the hippocampus show the statistical parameter estimates (indexing response amplitude) for recognized items eliciting correct (filled bars) versus incorrect (open bars) source judgments.

Answer 180

find both left and right hippocampus, time scales consisitent with increase blood usage because of neural activation about 5 seconds from the time of stimulus onset. strong activity detectable i hippo for correct recolections, consistent with the idea that the hippocampus is important for the episodic memory component. no activity in the hippocampus for the other options. ... so the activity in the hippocampus can predict whats going to happen the next day. options: correct recolection= correct familiarity= correct rejection= miss=

Answer 181

connected to the hippocampus, rlly close tother not spatially but anatomically. on midline of brain. two work together for episodic and spatial memory.strongest evidence is in patients with korsakoff syndrome (alchahol) thymine difficiency get damage to mamiliarty bodies, if not reversed permenant damage to thm means can remmeber nothing moving forward. no new memorys.

Answer 182

d - none of them have an episodic or source component

Answer 183

familiarity= what but not where episodic= both ... comes in through unimodal areas like the PVC, primairy auditory cortex, primary olfactory cortex, then spreads down (PVC example..) the temporal lobe into these parahippocampal and perihinal regions,. perihinal and entorhinal are adjacent areas, parahippocampal and entorhinal are also adjacent, but in a more sequential sense. parahippocampal cortex perihinal cortex. entorhinal cortex, integrated multiple layers of the hippocampus

Answer 184

1. 'gut', you cant recal a specific episode its graded 2. 'confidence', i think i saw and fairy certian, never i know i did 3. entorhinal/perirhinal cortex. 4. WHAT-PERIRHINAL CORTEX; WHERE-PARAHIPPOCAMPAL CORTEX) 5. entorhinal 6. hippocampus

Answer 185

ppl shown either images eg. a bell with the word bell under or a sound with a word. done with lots of objects, half are image and half are sound. retrieval, fMRI used again, measure use of blood, scanned areas during encoding and retrieval. during encoding: when u see image of bell= lots of activity in the primary visual cortex. when you hear sound= lots of activity in the primary auditory areas during retrieval: only word presented when you remember word= the areas of visual cortex are reactivated when the memory is being recalled when word is being recalled (sounds)= auditory area, brocas area reactivated. evidence for= reactivation of modality specific cortex during long term memory retrieval, memories are stored in the higher order sensory areas.

Answer 186

short term working memory for attention, so in terms of what it's doing during long term memory is not entirely clear cut.

Answer 187

the left prefrontal cortex has a lot of activity during episodic encoding and semantic retrieval and a little bit of activity during episodic retrieval, Whereas the right prefrontal cortex is heavily active during episodic retrieval and minimally so during episodic encoding and semantic retrieval. however the left frontal cortex The tasks that provided this evidence were confounded in some regard, because the left frontal cortex is also associated with verbal material, verbal memory, and the right frontal cortex with object in place material memory. So there's some ambiguity as to, um, why this apparent differentiation in activity in the left and right prefrontal cortex occurs.

Answer 188

words activate left frontal cortex during encoding, Unnameable objects activate both left and right frontal cortex during encoding, Encoding of faces activates primarily right frontal cortex.

Answer 189

words= left frontal cortex Unnameable objects activate both left and right frontal cortex during encoding faces= primarily right frontal cortex. = consistent with this idea that the left flanking cortex is important for verbal material memory,and the right frontal cortex is important for object and place. = it is possible to get different levels of activity in different regions of frontal cortex depending on what task the participant is being asked to do.

Answer 190

intrinsic properties of the objects presented naming a tool on screen, presentation of tool to eyes automatically activates parts of the brain used to use a tool. interconnected, memories for objects stored across dif areas of the brain. = Regions selectively activated when subjects silently named drawings of animals include the calcarine sulcus, the left and right fusiform gyri of the temporal lobe, left putamen, left thalamus, left insula and inferior frontal region (Broca's area), and right lateral and medial cerebellum. Active regions are identified by increased blood flow (fMRI). In the statistical procedure regions that are active during the naming of both animals and tools cancel each other and do not show a signal. In this panel and in part B the top pair of brain images are medial views, the lower pair are lateral views. SPM = statistical parametric maps. B. Regions selectively activated when subjects silently named tools are predominantly in areas of the left hemisphere associated with hand movements and the generation of action words.

Answer 191

We perceive semantic (and episodic) memory to be smooth and seamless – does it argue for one memory store? lesion= earlier part of the temporal lobe, find is that when you ask a patient to copy a model, (so they generally have some kind of lesion because of trauma or a schema damage) there not able to correctly recapitulate the the item being asked to draw.- when you ask them to verbally identify the object, um, they have perfect accuracy and they can say, yeah, this is a circle, this is a diamond. prior to the memory phase, a perceptive problem- can't see object parts as a unified whole. = patients are unable to construct sensory representations of visual stimuli,

Answer 192

the lesion is further along the temporal lobe. =You give them a model and they have no trouble reproducing the model =they have no idea problem= the patients can't interpret, understand or assign meaning to objects- episodic like deficit. = the sensory representation is created normally but cannot be associated with meaning functional utility

Answer 193

the cortex if you take out hippo and mamilliary bodies the patient cant form new memories (encoding is damaged) but retrieval of old memories is fine, hense korsakofs patient think their parents are still alive even tho they arent.

Answer 194

evidence shows that e is right. B AND C sometimes u dont need working memory, but lots of detail u need to use working memory.

Answer 195

1. episodic memory is the recollection of specific events or experiences, including details of time and place. Familiarity is a sense of recognition without specific details 2. Episodic memory encoding primarily involves the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe. Familiarity relies more on the perirhinal cortex. 3. distributed networks in the cortex, brain imaging studies and cases of hippocampal damage where old memories are often preserved. 4. he frontal cortex helps organize, encode, and retrieve memories, 5. stored dispersed across networks in the cortex and are not in one single location. They are seamlessly integrated, so various parts of a memory (e.g., sights, sounds) are stored in the relevant sensory areas and brought together by interconnected networks during recall.

Answer 196

is mostly required for encoding of declarative memory.

Answer 197

the entorhinal cortex encodes familiarity.

Answer 198

Action Potential Arrival: An electrical impulse (action potential) travels down the axon to the synaptic terminal. Calcium Ion Influx: The action potential causes voltage-gated calcium channels to open, allowing Ca²⁺ ions to enter the synaptic terminal. Neurotransmitter Release: Calcium influx triggers synaptic vesicles to merge with the membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter Binding: Neurotransmitters cross the cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron’s membrane. Post-Synaptic Potential: Binding causes ion channels to open, leading to either depolarization (excitatory) or hyperpolarization (inhibitory) of the postsynaptic cell. Termination: Neurotransmitters are either reuptaken, degraded, or diffuse away, ending the signal and resetting the synapse for the next transmission.

Answer 199

glutamate(exitatory) and gaba (inhibitory) ... dont actually open channels = NMDA (Ca+), AMPA (Na+) and kainate (mainly na but some ca) NMDA AND AMPA ARE main 2. NMDA AND AMPA= glutamate

Answer 200

glutamate neurotranmitter allows CA+ through has magnesium constitutively bound inside the channel pore, So just the binding of glutamate by itself to that in game receptor doesn't do much. (while that manganese is still bound, nothing can come in through the NMDA receptor) To remove the **magnesium block**. An **action potential** has to hit in the cell first (membrane depolarisation) For example, a presynaptic neurone activates glutamate binds to AMPA receptors, AMPA receptors cause the depolarisation that releases the manganese block from NMDA and then if glutamate is bound to the NMDA receptors, you get influx of calcium as well as sodium through that.

Answer 201

1. presynaptic neuron releases glutamate 2. glutamate activates non NMDA receptors primarilly AMPA 3. sodium influx 4. depolarises postsynaptic neuron 5. which alows the magnesium to exit the NMDA receptors 6. calcium influx triggers LTP induction

Answer 202

is a lasting increase in the strength of synaptic transmission between neurons. It’s considered one of the main processes by which the brain stores memories and enables learning.

Answer 203

to induce LTP in slice work in a lab= apply a very rapid strong strain of electrical activity, so alot of electrical activity arriving at the synapse, one right after the other. so.... 1. the magnesium block gets removed, 2. the NMDA gets activated, 3. and you get LCP. probably most important for memory formation. idea= if a whole load of different neurones activate the same neurone at the same time, cause a lot of depolarisation, a lot of activation of that post-synaptic neurone so get strengthening of the synapse.\ The calcium influx triggers enzymatic reactions which result in AMPA receptor sensitization and in recruitment of additional AMPA receptors into the postsynaptic membrane.

Answer 204

early=the sensitisation of receptors and the insertion of AMPA receptors into the membrane that are already available into the synapse that strengthens the synapse. so..... So next time an electrical impulse comes down the presynaptic neurone and releases glutamate, you're going to get a stronger reaction in the post synaptic neuron late= all this activity generate more activity and the level of DNA transcription and translation in the nucleus.

Answer 205

generate more activity and the level of DNA transcription and translation in the nucleus. so you get more NMDA receptors and AMPA being made and sent out to the synapse. formation of new mutants (tends to happen earlier in development, but it can happen at any phase of really strong memory formation.) So the calcium influx also triggers protein synthesis and the generation of additional synapsis. = if in animals you inhibit protein synthesis then you weaken the strength of the memories that get formed.

Answer 206

1. synaptic plasticity 2. neuronal connections. 3. long term potentiation (LTP) and long term depression (LTD). 4. NMDA- srtudied by blocking it. 5. Ca+

Answer 207

THE OPPOSITE OF LTP causes neuron depression not exitation Rather than many neurones activating the post about the neurone at the same time, or a really strong chain of action potentials, and the way you induces in the slice is to do a really weak training of action potentials. and then the postsynaptic neurone is not heavily activated and it almost desensitises in a fashion. Some of the AMPA receptors will be taken out of that synapse.

Answer 208

cues neuron to become exited neuron to become depressed eg. a mouse sees an eagle coming to kill it = initiating a flight reponce eg. a mouse sees an acorn- it causes the neurosn to become depressed

Answer 209

- mouse running around an arena - There's a TV camera overhead tracking the position of the mouse. - There's a wire connecting, um, to electrodes that are implanted in the mouse's brain directly into the hippocampus. pick up extracellular electrical activity. detecting action potentials looking at a place cell, when mouse is in an area of the arena, when its in a place that ISNT activated by the place cell= low level of activity when it gets into the area where place cell IS activated= lots of action potentials

Answer 210

are specialized neurons found in the hippocampus, a region of the brain that is critically involved in spatial navigation and memory. These cells are responsible for creating a mental map of an environment and encoding the spatial location of an individual within that environment. rats have been observed navigating mazes while the activity of individual hippocampal neurons (place cells) was recorded. Researchers found that different neurons fired when the rat was in different places within the maze, showing how the brain encodes spatial locations.

Answer 211

whenever the animals in part A of the arena across multiple sessions, the cell would always fire when it's in the same place. to eliminate NMDA receptors in the C1 region of the hippocampus (the NMDA receptor is key for LTP and LTD- formation of spatial memory) data from mice that selectively have **no NMDA receptors in C1 ,** but have NMDA in rest of hippocampus -= first day didnt find platform, after multiple days and trials has learnt where the platform is so gos straight there to escape

Answer 212

LTP strengthens synaptic connections and supports the encoding of new memories, while LTD helps with refining memories, updating or removing less relevant information, and preventing over-consolidation of unnecessary connections. so LTD is like synaptic pruning

Answer 213

1. there are proximal cues around the maze to help the mouse navigate to where it needs to go 2. 2 dif types of mice wild type (normal) and mutant ones that have no NMDA receptor in C1 region of hippocampus. 3. baseline= little input= little activity 4. introduce LTP (rapid pulse of electrical activity) then take electrical activity away 6. mutant mouse returns back to baseline actiivity straight away because theres no LTP as theres No NMDA receptors 7. with wildytpe mice, get the induction of LTP, baseline level is now higher because (strong activation of postsynaptic membrane, lots of AMPA receptors inserted= strengthened synapse)

Answer 214

1. wildtype= slow to find platform, but quickly learns because NMDA receptors help. 2. mutant rats= do learn so must be some alternative but a much slower rate and dont learn as well.

Answer 215

once mice know well and have learned where the platform is, you take it out and look where they swim. wildtype= spend lots fo time by the old platform cause they remember where it is trying to find it. but they cant mutant mouse (same amnount of experience) swims around whole area as hasnt formed the same strong spatial memory about where the platform was.

Answer 216

w= mapping remains the same across all sessions (aka went to same areas) m= dont form nice place cells in first place, alot more variability across sessions = LTP in the hippo is important for allowing place cells to exist, and when you impair NMDA receptor, see behavioural defecit aswell.

Answer 217

place cells in the hippocampus. hippocampus episodic

Answer 218

e a= not mouse is morris b= Not AMPA but NMDA c= not in synaptic cleft but in the NMDA channel d= occurs early and late

Answer 219

Bilateral amygdala damage, severe atrophy of the amygdala, with the brain tissue now replaced by cerebrospinal fluid (black). certain defecits relating to how they can/cant clasify diferent emotions.

Answer 220

of faces that had emotional expressions, and rated them in terms of the intensity. eg. rlly scared would be high. good at rating happy, disguised, angry , disgusited and sad but whenever confronted with a fearful face she dosent think it looks fearful. so the one emotion is lacking when have lesion in amygdyla

Answer 221

managed to do all of this but she couldnt draw a fearful face she drew a baby instead

Answer 222

judge fearful expressions or draw them but was fine with all other emotions

Answer 223

loss of innate fear, becoming hyperoral (everything in mouth), hypersexual and docile (not agressive) ... subtle

Answer 224

darwin, book called 'the expression of emotion in man and animals' ... widespread universality of a number of emotional expressions between diferent species (cat and human shouting look somewhat similar) ... biological ... social communication ( however , we think emotions without commuication is useful)

Answer 225

universal cultures both modern and archaic they went to different archaic tribes and asked people to make an emotion/express it, if they were told their child had died, about to fight, your happy, or see a dead pig. ... 6 basic emotions eg. happy, anger, supprise, fear, sadness, disguist.

Answer 226

All facial emotions are social tools for communication .. used to decieve ( can pretend we are happy, we lie)... therefore not a fundemental underlying biological mechanism.

Answer 227

the circumplex model a circle with df colours around- have all these different emotions, and can classify them in whether they are in an activated state (active) or deactivated state (depressed) and/.or pleasenteness and unpleasentness. eg. anger= whe angry, pretty activated and mostly unpleasent ( end up on green/blue side 10 ocolock) activation unpleasent pleasent deactivation

Answer 228

circuit models - uses brain circuits involved in processing specific emotions the limbic system

Answer 229

hippocampus, the cingulate cortex, precuneus cortex, hypothalamic nuclei, amygdala

Answer 230

early and mid 20th century ... emotional processing. ... outdated. emotional processing

Answer 231

james-Lange theory argued that when you see something that triggers an emotion, like a threatening stimulus that would induce fear, There would be a bodily response eg. increase HR/sweating/ facial expression. then theres a cignitive readout of that bodily state that then triggers the concious percept of he emotions so bodily emotional responces triggers the emotional perception cannon-bard theory argued cant be the case because they did experiments in cats where cut all the body feedback (nerves from body to brain) those cats were still able to express fear etc. so argued its the emotional perception that, then triggers bodily emotional responces

Answer 232

james-lange theory russel visiting the dentist no aneasthesia so either knock on head, or alchahol or adrenaline ( causes release of endogenous opiod endorphines and increase HR/sweat, similar to fear) so when you use adrenaline you should feel fear? so he argued that when he goes to dentist he should be scared but adrenaline didnt make him fearfull. if james-lange were correct (body then mind), he should be fearful but he wasnt so argued james-lange cant be right

Answer 233

easier to study in animals, and is universal and easy to trigger. .. classical conditioning use an US (shock) causes UR (rat to jump). CS would be (the light as dosent bother rat at start) before its paired dosent elieict a responce. during training pair the US (shock) with the CS ( light). after traning the rat should jump after turn the light on as the light predicts a shock. if play light and loud sound at same time theres an even bigger jump called potentiated startle responce. if CS (light) is repeatedly presented without the aversive stimulus after learning, the fear response will diminish (extinction:=unlearning).

Answer 234

skin conductance, show scary photos, if you think scary you will have slightly more moist/sweaty fingers. electricity conducts better through mpist surfaces (water with ions in it is a good conductor) so resistence of skin goes down. so measure resistence with devices. if resistence goes down= skin more moist= emotions/scared gone up ... lie detector tests.

Answer 235

(james= body responce-> mind cannon= mind -> body responce) card game investigates the somatic marker hypothesis ( test for james lang theory) says that= out body tells us whats good/bad for us and then from that we devise some emotions. work by= 2 stacks of cards, pick from any of them. if we pick left= massive yeild ( bingo), may then get another massive one or a rlly big loss. if you choose from right= all very similar steady small yeild, gains arent as big but neither are losses. measure skin while doing this and quiz them, body reports dont pick from left as shows anxious state of what will happen conclusion= damasio argued that yes, james-lange is right is body first (because readout from the body by doing skin conducance is faster than the concious percept of whats going on here.)

Answer 236

estimation of value orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala which is where rewards are represented and value processing. 2 parts of the orbitofrontal cortex= lateral and medial

Answer 237

estimate value very well anymore, in the damasio's card game they would stick with the left (risky ) one as they only think short term gains not long term. normal intelligence, but cant function long-term.

Answer 238

2 pathways that feed into the amygdala

Answer 239

1= the subcortical low-road pathway direct to amygdala ( that may trigger bodily responces) that goes from our senses through thalamus directly to amygdala, arriving without alot of information surrounding it (because of thalamus) so a scary thing may trigger an emotional responce which makes us jump faster, trigger body reaction, then feel fear. thalamus= not a sTructure where high cog detailed processing Takes place, It is a structure that transmits information filter some, but mostly at transmission station, not high level analysis.

Answer 240

2= the cortical high road where the sensory information goes through all the cortical areas to high level analysis. then feeds to the amygdala

Answer 241

The cortical (slow/high) road entails high level processing of information, where most likely conscious awareness of e.g. danger triggers fear and the associated responses. The subcortical low road allows for fast processing of potential danger/benefit, and physical reactions can be triggered before an awareness of and emotion.

Answer 242

1st input stage= emotional stimulus--> sensory thalamus --> lateral nucleus of the amygdala other stages= sensory thalamus--> primary sensor, unimodal assosiation, polumodal assosiation, entorhinal cortex, hippocamus, subiculum--> lateral nucleus of the amygdala ( the CONCIOUS PERCEPT is formed) total= emotional stimulus--> sensory thalamus --> from the lateral nucleus of the amygdala-->output to basal lateral nucleus and basomedial nucleus --> which lead to the central nucleus of the amydala--> emotional responces triggered.

Answer 243

aversive or fear conditioning.. humans a) IMPLICIT= learn through expereince (fear conditioning) .. skin conductance (some trials give them an electric shock) blue square vs orange square blue = electric shock orange= nothing happens over time, skin moisture goes up when blue square , skin conductance goes up because of fear conditioning. B) EXPLICIT = learn from instruction .. instruction instead of electric shock told every time you see a blue square your going to get an electric shock (you never do but ) when it comes up you are anticipating it so skin conductance goes up, and show bodily signs of fear

Answer 244

implicit= normal ppl= earned by experience that blue square gives them an electric shock. when normal ppl see a blue square show an increase in skin conductance. and again when electric shock is given. for patient SP= There is no change in skin conductance when the blue square comes on. But it shows the normal skin conductance change when the electric shock comes. if you ask the what the blue square means? answer= they are going to get an electric shock. so they have learned it conciously but wihtout ther amygdala theres no way of informing body about whats going to happen. concious learning without any bodily responces. = means there must be 2 seperate systems of learning

Answer 245

Hippocampus mediates learning by awareness (declarative memory system). Amygdala mediates conditioned autonomic responses. Amygdala activation aids the retention of hippocampus dependent memories (emotional events are much better remembered). = because the amygdala helps the hippocampus to store the information, We remember things very, very well that are emotionally arousing. either rlly rlly happy memory or rlly rlly sad will remember forever.

Answer 246

fearful looked at what do people look at when they scan emotional expressions. control= look at the eye, nose, mouth and then they know what it is. patient SM= look mostly on nose, not eyes (which is probs the most obvious one for emotion) if we dont look at it we dont percieve it told to look at eyes in second stage, when she did this for all emotions, it made no diference when asked to look but.... when she looked at fearful expressions she could tell its fearful, telling us yes the amydgdala is involved in emotional expressions, but it's also involved in our ability to actually look at subject's eyes, and social skill and something where autistic ppl are poor at. ehich is why they cat read some emotions very well.

Answer 247

lots of white= fearful face

Answer 248

Positive or negative thoughts, feelings, or actions towards objects which arise due to past experiences which one is either unaware of or which one cannot attribute to an identified previous experience

Answer 249

very brief automatic assesment requires amygdala. when less brief (faces shown for longer) = the differential response happens in the medial cortex and in the cingulate cortex, at a high level of processing not the amygdala.

Answer 250

implicit attitude test (IAT). implicit and explicit attitudes. amygdala activation, explicit attitudes implicit learning of emotional information and implicit coding of information.

Answer 251

modern computer, start with neutral expression, morphe faces it becomes more and more happy/sad/disguisted. till you have an extreme facial expression. which brain areas are active when i view these diferent expressions= anger= right orbitalfrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex

Answer 252

fear= amygdala anger= right orbitalfrontal cotex and anterior cingulate cortex sadness= amygdala, right temporal pole disgust= anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex.

Answer 253

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (vlPFC) Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) Automatic nervous system (ANS) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) Superior temporal sulcus (STS) Fusiform face area (FFA) Temporoparietal junction (TPJ) Medial parietal cortex

Answer 254

Self reference test: ppl asked to write traits about themselves and somone else, askedf later on which of the words they can remember as a general list. ppl remember their own words much better than the others. called self-referential processing= we rememebr r own stuff in more depth

Answer 255

in the **Medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC)** activity is associated with self-referential processing when compared to processing words in relation to another person (“Other”) or the printed format of the words.

Answer 256

Self reference tests tell us how we process and store information about ourselves compared to information about others. Information about the self is processed in more depth. The medial prefrontal cortex is heavily involved in the processing of self-referential information – it shows less deactivation during self referential tasks than other areas. Why less deactivation?

Answer 257

network of brain areas active when we do nothing- day dream= dorsal medial cortex, ventral medial cortex, posterier medial cortex, posterior lateral cortices. when we think about external world these areas are not required anymore, when we think about ourselves they are activated. Regions of the brain associated with high levels of metabolism when the brain is at rest and with deactivation when the brain is focusing on specific task instructions. Regions in the ventral and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, as well as the posterior lateral cortices, tend to have a high level of metabolism when people are not engaged in a particular task. When people are instructed to focus on a particular task, many of these regions then deactivate from their resting level of activity.

Answer 258

The resting state brain network is more active when people are at rest (daydreaming, idling). It largely consists of areas of the medial frontal and parietal cortex and the lateral parietal cortex. It is assumed to be involved in the processing of ‘self-referential’ information (me in relation to the world). Thus, other (non-resting state) areas deactivate during self referential processing, but the resting state network does not!

Answer 259

temporal-parietal junction The default network. Combined data from nine positron emission tomography (PET) studies showing the regions that were most active during passive tasks (in blue). The lateral (left) and medial (right) surfaces of the left hemisphere are shown. Self-referential processing occurs when significant information about the self is processed intensely. The self-referential effect is enhanced memory for information processed in relation to oneself. Self-referential processing appears to be our baseline or resting state.

Answer 260

work out what you are good at and not 1,2,3,4 not at all true-> extremely true all diff adjectives give a rating then ask about positive traits and negative and where they are represented in the brian being kind is positive so high rating are that shows a big dif in brain activity ventral anterior cingulate cortex. (vACC)= allows us to differentirate between positive and negative world views. ppl with depression dont have this area working fix it with deep brain stimulation(video of he/she)

Answer 261

“Utilization behaviour” F. Lhermitte had patients with OFC lesions- they suffer from utalization behaviour= put a syrnge on a tray and patient came in doctor shows his bum and patient comes in sees this and gives the doctor a jab in the bum. none of us would do that!

Answer 262

contronted with somone they never met before, ask to do small talk. after asked to say how they think they perfoemced. ppl woth OFC lesion talk for hours boring others and still think they have done really well (misjudge how they behave in social context, leading to utalization behaviour) asked for a rating made the watch the video after if they said they did rlly well in both= they dont change judgment in 3rd person pperspective if they changed it = they can judge whats appropriate in 3rd person. became embarrassed after viewing their social mistakes on videotape.

Answer 263

Prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex damage completely changed Gage’s personality traits. He became inconsiderate, anti-social and unable to plan his own future in a meaningful way.

Answer 264

Prefrontal lobotomies were performed to ‘cure’ subjects. This was done on (usually) severely mentally ill patients, as no other treatments seemed available. The outcomes were generally a failure (or catastrophic), even if it made patients more manageable in care. With hindsight the practice can be seen as one of the worst mistakes in modern history.

Answer 265

A study of personality inference. (a) Participants were presented with a series of pictures that paired faces with statements about personality. They were instructed either to make an inference about the person’s personality or to pay attention to the order in which the statements were presented. (b) Medial prefrontal cortex activity was associated with forming impressions of personality in comparison to remembering sequence order one part of MPC increases in activity when thinking of others, one part decreases.

Answer 266

how we think other people think, what si the intention of that person, what will they do nexy? etc.... The Sally-Anne False Belief Task for investigating theory of mind. This task is used with children to determine whether they can interpret what Sally is thinking about the location of the marble. she puts in draw, it gets moved, children without TOM would say she looks in new place. ppl with TOM can put themselves into her shoes and say she will look where she left it.

Answer 267

False belief (FB) sample story: John told Emily that he had a Porsche, but his car is a Ford. Emily does not know anything about cars, so she believed John. When she sees his car she thinks it is a …. (Porsche/Ford?) False photograph (FP) sample story: Emily takes a photo of an apple hanging on a branch. While going home the wind blows the apple off the tree. In the evening she shows the photo to John. John sees the apple on the (tree/ground)? when people think of what others think the temporoparietal junction shows higher activity.

Answer 268

Participants viewed a virtual-reality character who moved her eye gaze either (a) in a congruent manner toward a flashing checkerboard or (b) in an incongruent manner away from a flashing checkerboard. The superior temporal sulcus tracked the intention behind eye gaze shifts rather than all shifts in eye gaze.

Answer 269

infer the intentions, plans, actions of other people. temporo-parietal junction temporo-parietal junction (superior temporal cortex)

Answer 270

provide smelly odars (odar-sample task) measaure activity in brain area when exposed to disguisting odars vs when we watch other people showing emotions of disguist. the insular cortex is active when we watch somone showing emotions of disgust or disgusted oureslves. it represents our self stimulation to bodily feelings eg. tummy ache, or pain of emotional, it becomes active fusiforum gyrus- no diference between dif emotions

Answer 271

Study of empathy for pain. Each participant watched as a partner’s hand received a shock through a set of electrodes. Brain activity was very similar for one’s own pain and the pain of the partner, and the degree of brain activation was correlated with empathy. - insular cortex, Study of empathy for pain. The level of activation in ‘pain’ centers when watching someone dear in pain correlated with an person’s ability to empathize.

Answer 272

have an impression about these people- either think their fair or unfair then see them get punished in scanner anterior insula cortex, effected when fair players get punished. women care a bit but men dont (EMPATHIZE) area showed more activation when unfair person punished = The nucleus accumbens (reward centre)- stronger in men and desire for (REVENGE). JOY FROM BEING PUNISHED

Answer 273

Empathy ‘liking’ Revenge

Answer 274

‘default mode network’. Orbitofrontal cortex Theory of mind test

Answer 275

stimulus, or in the ability to identify a stimulus, following prior exposure to that stimulus. word fragment task.

cognitive neuroscience Flashcards

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