developmental psychology Flashcards

Question

# Visual perception development Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) is .... at birth, rapid increase in first ... Near adult levels by ...

Answer 1

poor... 6 months... 1 year

Answer 2

2 months... 1 ... 2

Answer 3

newborns.. 1 .. 4

Answer 4

Preference tests Habituation tests Conditioning

Answer 5

.Present two stimuli at same time Measure how long infant looks at each Does infant look at one more than the other? Infant can discriminate between stimuli

Answer 6

Shown interesting stimulus repeatedly Infant loses interest eventually (habituation) Change to a different stimulus Infant shows renewed interest and looks again (dishabituation) If so, the infant can tell the difference

Answer 7

Repeatedly reward target behaviour Ex: increase sucking rate, get specific stimuli Infant becomes habituated to stimulus Stimulus is altered (ex. HAS procedure) If infant does not increase sucking rate treats 2 stimuli as the same Does increase sucking rate  distinguishes between 2 stimuli

Answer 8

Innate Attraction Recognition of Face Patterns Sensitivity to Emotions Imitation and Social Interaction

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early adulthood

Answer 10

Species Sex Race Identity Mood, Emotional state Intent, truthfulness

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abilities from birth – innate, inborn (faces organized at birth ) acquire overtime through experience – learned (Perceive faces as they perceive other objects becomes specialized after experience)

Answer 12

complex... simple

Answer 13

schematic (normal)

Answer 14

3 ... cognitive development, exposure, and the maturation of perceptual abilities.

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CONSPEC and CONLEARN. conspec bonding with caegivers (attatchment theory) amygdala and the brainstem conlearn visual cortex ...experience and exposure to their social environment. fusiform gyrus

Answer 16

identity of novel individuals eye-gaze expressions

Answer 17

attractive faces mothers face

Answer 18

outside of face and hairline masked outer features

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perceptual window specialized

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6 months 9 months 9

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both monkey and human faces face types they’d been exposed to

Answer 22

..worse at discriminating faces of other races compared to own race (Tanaka et al., 2004) 3m old, but not newborns, prefer own race faces (Kelly et al 2005)

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recognising caucasian faces. effect of the environment and the other race effect

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primary care giver

Answer 25

in identifying emotions in faces

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angry faces

Answer 27

Some research suggests not until 30+ years for face learning/recognition

Answer 28

Ongoing development of face-specific perception mechanisms; continue to develop into late child and adolescence Face perception gets better because of **increased exposure/experience with faces** face perception matures early (4-5 yrs?) performance increases later as general **cognitive mechanisms improve **

Answer 29

faces is disproportionately impaired when the faces are presented upside-down (inverted) compared to non-face objects highlights the specialized nature of face processing in the brain, as the inversion of faces disrupts recognition more significantly than it does for other types of stimuli, like houses, animals, or objects.

Answer 30

... faces by focusing on the entire structure (H) and relationships between facial features (C) rather than processing individual features in isolation Code spacing between face and features

Answer 31

Positive association between age and facial recognition abilities “late maturation hypothesis”

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Recognizing familiar people Remembering faces Interpreting eye-gaze and emotions

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Process unfamiliar faces atypically Prolonged face gaze (Riby et al. 2008)

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right fusiform gyrus (stroke, brain injury) birth, appears to run in families

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top down.. central executive

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inhibition- ability to control attention working memory - ability to hold items in mind and then process info at the same time, info processing. hold info in mind while processing other info cognitive flexability- ability to switch tasks, change attention

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a set of mental skills that help you manage your thoughts, actions, and emotions to achieve goals. These skills include self-control, staying focused, planning, and adapting to new situations. They are important for tasks like organizing, problem-solving, and making decisions.

Answer 38

takes measures based on adults and applies to children vs creates age appropriate tasks so you can follow development. problem... so have lots of tasks and lots of people trying to find out how they continue to develop

Answer 39

congruent option= fish all facing same way to middle incongruent= fish all facing diferent direction to middle .. inhibit that responce for the incongruent trial. (not make the mistake) Rt will be slower as trying to inhibit that responce. you give children a task where they have a incongruent task and time how long it takes for them to inhibit /supress the wrong responce. loads of dif tasks

Answer 40

from 3-6 years old the accuracy increased by 30%

Answer 41

in adolecence, into 20's. decrease in erros, become better and more effcient at supressing wrong.

Answer 42

give them a sentance and they have to end the sentance for you. eg. i like to eat fish and ..... (hope=chips), hold that answer in mind. then a baker makes a loaf of ...(hope=bread) then asked ro recal these 2 items in serial order.. chips... bread. (have to hold words in mind while processing sentances)

Answer 43

somone says numbers to you and you have to repeat them back starting with the last item. eg. 3,4,5. i say 5,4,3. 1 item 2/3 items - individual diferences - dif processes happening for working memory to work/hit 3 items.

Answer 44

sort by item or colour eg. red car and blue baloon. if its colour put blue car in the blue section not the baloon, then change. when change rule they will carry on with the first rule of the colour for a while until they have a lightbulb moment. cognitive felxability, as get to 4.5 they are able to achieve this

Answer 45

... stroop and tower of hanoi trajecturies for each of these diferent processes. ... IQ and age are inherintly correlated and its linked to general cognitive perofrmance so want IQ to all be similar so its not affecting what the study is acc about. same as SES (lower SES= lower ability) want to see TRUE EFFECT .. similar accross the life span whilst all these papers are trying to pin trajecturies together you cant.. as its all very diferent across the lifespan.

Answer 46

same thing happening, rule will change but not told rule is going to change. you have to work it out when they say its wrong. testing ability to notice switch rules. shift costs decrease differ form adults.

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= if you measure 1 its not going to effect the other = 1 can effect another

Answer 48

significantly related .. there all pretty related/ strong evidence in children there all correlated.

Answer 49

shifting, working memory, inhibiton

Answer 50

at 4 its predicted by inhibition older its predicted by working memory dif parts are developing at dif rates, inhibition is more mature at 4 so it predicts the behaviour.

Answer 51

which studies you believe to have done the most reliabe best study with controlls. if theres dif stuff being found in dif studies work out which study you believ to be the best.

Answer 52

90% PFC pre frontal cortex. looking and grabbing 20

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=myelination, neuron proliferation, synaptogenesis =cell death, synaptic pruning, loss in grey matter

Answer 54

eliminating unused or weaker synapses in the brain. occurs after synaptogenesis and is part of how the brain becomes more effieicent - occurs especially during adolecence

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coating axons with fatty substance for insulation, speeding up transmittion between neurons.

Answer 56

contains most of brains neurons and synapses

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neurons multiply at a very fast rate, mostly during prenatal development, linked to neurogenesis

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neurons form connections caused synapses, the wiring of the brain

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natural and controlled process where cells die off as part of development - efficient brain function.

Answer 60

synaptogenesis, mylination , neural profileration

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synaptic pruning, cell death and myleination

Answer 62

...Increases in dendritic trees in layer III of the PFC (Koenderink et al., 1994) 12-18 months: Peak in synaptogenesis in the middle frontal gyrus (Huttenlocher et al., 1997) Synaptogenesis in the PFC in the first decade of life; reduction in synapses through adolescence and adulthood (Glantz et al., 2007)

Answer 63

the amount of blood thats being pumped into specific areas of the brain. 8/9 months of age, which isnt very long but other areas happens in first 2-3 months of life. 6-8 months and 4-6 in other areas.

Answer 64

peaks declines. constant adolecence... myelination

Answer 65

... look at activation patterns in imaging studies - OFC= decision-making and the assessment of rewards and punishments - parietal cortex is important for spatial awareness, attention, and sensory integration.

Answer 66

you cant put a child in MRI because you have to stay still and children dont consent bad for developing brain EEG but is temporary not spatially FNIRS- which used to look at oxygendated blood flow in child brain, same bold responce but all you have to do is put a cap on a child.

Answer 67

inhibitory control myelination dorsilateral PFC and the parietal lobes

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At 3yo: Weak neural interactions within the frontal cortex and unrefined frontoparietal connectivity At 4.5yo: Stronger neural connections and a refined pathways with efficient connectivity

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PFC in early EF isolation

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Patterns of brain activity are more diffused in your children or show distinct neural patterns relative to adults Strengthening of region-to-region connections, consistent set of brain regions

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no not rlly so domain specific there are frontal and parietal involved in all of it. other areas supporting seperate parts. seeing same activation patterns in adults. quantitative, seeing majority overlapping

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dont overlap at all starting to see overlap. if brain regions are starting to overlap and work together

Answer 73

...The transmission of information between the source and a receiver using a signaling system ...The comprehension and use of words and sentences to convey ideas and information, which can be spoken, written or signed (part of communication) song birds learning song, humans gossiping humans gossiping

Answer 74

chimpanzee called kanzie with foster mother, trying to teach older one symbolic language. hears word, knows which symbol to click, uses the symbols to request things

Answer 75

our human brains before we are born are made to learn language- babies being primed for language, learn speech sounds in the womb language is complex- we are designed to language, innate, will be learned. "A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, arousing in them novel ideas and subtle perceptions and judgments."

Answer 76

speech perception, vision, memory etc (chimps have some abilities) (chimps are unlilley to have narrow senses) eg. speech production, syntax, Hierarchical syntax, Mitteilungsbedurnis (deisre ro need to talk to humans)

Answer 77

1. phonology ( The interpretation of speech sounds in a particular language) 2. semantics (Concerned with meaning ) 3. syntax ( the structure of sentances) 4. pragmatics (Appropriate and effective communication)

Answer 78

Phonology is the interpretation of speech sounds in a particular language Phoneme: A phoneme is the smallest unit that, when changed, changes the meaning of a word Phonetics: is the production and perception of speech sounds in any language, concerned with the acoustics and articulation of those sounds Phone: Speech sound

Answer 79

Semantics: Concerned with meaning. Includes words (lexical knowledge) and word combinations words... an arbitrary signal that refers to a particular concept Contains form and meaning – words occupy the ‘meeting point’ between these levels E.g. dog = content word – a noun Types of words: Nouns, verbs, adjectives etc Probably the primary object of speech perception - nouns - a 'bar' has dif meanings - context which changes meaning too.

Answer 80

Morphology: structure of a given language's morphemes Morpheme: smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function (eg. sheep or dog) example- sheep and dog if put 2 morphemes together to sheepdog, chnages its meaning to a dog what looks after sheep.

Answer 81

... Whole object constraint- - Words refer to whole object rather than parts of object .. Generalise to other objects that are the same shape, rather than other attributes (texture, colour, material, etc) Aids early noun learning

Answer 82

...: used in variety of contexts - 'more' can request lots of diferent things - only used in specific contexts - 'duck' rubber duck in their bath- may not be able to translate duck to other ducks they see in the park, gradually they will realise objects have catogries.

Answer 83

# of “noun phrase” arguments or participants children are Sensitive to syntactic and semantic correspondences from early age Extract meanings of new words from syntactic clues- so. if a child has never seen a ball, and you say can u kick the ball they will asume its the one that needs kicking (syntac helps ppl undertand what some objects are by where they are in sentances) hel;ps support the aqusition of meaning. Mary kicked the ball (transitive: subject + object) Tom is sleeping (intransitive: subject, no object)

Answer 84

Observational studies of spontaneous speech Look for particular patterns or structures (“sheeps”) Artificial language in experiments: Look! Cookie Monster is “gorping” Big Bird Look! Cookie Monster and Big Bird are “gorping” Measure looking times at 2 different videos Children look longer at appropriate video

Answer 85

The structure of sentences subject, verb, object dog, chased, cat 1) the dog chased the cat 2) the cat chased the dog (swapped the pbject and subject around)

Answer 86

:Appropriate and effective communication Knowing how to use language appropriately in social situations 1) Using language for different purposes E.g. “I would like you to give me a biscuit” (requesting) Vs “Give me a biscuit” (demanding) 2) Changing language according to the needs of a listener or situation E.g. “Friend vs lecturer vs the King” what age do people do this? 3 yo vs the king 3) Following rules for conversations and storytelling E.g. staying on topic and taking turns

Answer 87

receptive: 6months + they undertand quite alot takes about 4 years to undertsand jokes expressive: 10-12 months - first word – usually nouns 12-18 months - one-word stage (doggy! not theres a dog!) ~18 months - approx. 50 words 18-22 months - vocabulary spurt - 50-300 words in a few months. Largely nouns and adjectives e.g. teddy dancing, but function words omitted e.g. my teddy is dancing 2-6 years – vocabulary continues to increase

Answer 88

2-word stage Move from word-gesture combinations to word-word combinations Telegraphic Speech: Only elements needed to get message across E.g., “more milk”; “Teddy dancing” 24 months+: longer utterances & increasing grammar, 3-word sentences: subject-verb-object ~2-3 years grammar is OK 4 years Increasing complex grammar Plural: Add -s Past tense: Add –ed Over-regularization - Applying regular rules to irregular words (Kemp & Bryant, 2003) e.g. The boy is running…. Yesterday he ____ Passive Voice E.g., “was given by” vs “he gave”

Answer 89

gives us a rough milestone of what we expect, if dont reach milestones at each age can unpack dificulties

Answer 90

1. Understands 2 to 3 part spoken instructions: e.g. “Finish your picture, then sit on the carpet and look at a book.” 2. Knows words can be put into groups and can give common examples in them: e.g. Animals: dog, cat, horse... 3. Uses well-formed sentences: e.g. “I played with Zoe in the park.” but with some errors: e.g. “I falled down.” 4. Describes events but not always joined together or in the right order: e.g. “I went on the top of the bus with dad. That big slide is scary. We taked the ball as well”. 5. Uses language to ask, negotiate, give opinions and discuss ideas and feelings: e.g. “Are we going to Nana’s today? Can I take teddy with me? He will be sad by himself.”

Answer 91

1. Is aware when a message is unclear and comments or asks for explanation. 2. Compares words, the way they look, sound or mean: e.g. “There are two words ‘sea’ at the beach, and you ‘see’ with your eyes.” 3. Uses different ways to join phrases to help explain or justify an event: e.g. “I’m older than you so I will go first.” 4. Tells stories that set the scene, have a basic plot and a sequence of events. 5. Takes turns to talk, listen, and respond in two-way conversations and groups.

Answer 92

1. Identifies clearly when they haven’t understood: e.g. “What’s maize?” or “Get a blue what? 2. Uses a wide range of verbs to express their thoughts, or about cause and effect: e.g. “I wonder what she’s thinking,” or, “If we run we should get there on time but we might arrive late.” 3. Uses regular and unusual word endings: e.g. walked or fell. 4. Stories have a good structure with a distinct plot, an exciting event, clear resolution and conclusion: e.g. “…and everyone got home safely which was great.” 5. Takes turns to talk, listen, and respond in two-way conversations and groups.

Answer 93

1. Follows longer instructions that are not familiar: e.g. “Put the stripy folder that’s on top of the cupboard into the bottom drawer of my desk.” 2. Uses sophisticated words but the meaning might not always be accurate: e.g. “My bedroom was meticulous.” 3. Uses long and complex sentence structures: e.g. “The big dog barked whenever I knocked on the door” 4. Tells elaborate entertaining stories which are full of detailed descriptions 5. Uses different language depending on where they are, who they are with and what they are doing: e.g. Formal style with the headteacher in school; relaxed and informal with family at home; and ‘cool’ language with friends in the park.

Answer 94

developmental language disorder: DSM V criteria for language disorders Terminology Prevalence

Answer 95

Speech = The production of vocal sounds Language = The comprehension and use of words and sentences to convey ideas and information, which can be spoken, written or signed Communication = The transmission of information between the source and a receiver using a signaling system - C refers to lots of things some non-human - language is just human - speech is sub catogory of language as can have sign language, write down. -

Answer 96

Any one or a combination of the following can be difficult: - Making speech sounds or speaking clearly (some communicate without spoken language). - Putting words together in sentences. - Understanding spoken language or listening to long or complex instructions. - Having conversations or interacting with others.

Answer 97

Wide age range; wide range of severity Mild delay in one or more areas; short-term if given Support – can catch up with peers Long-term and persistent Direct and specific intervention (SLT) therapist Pattern and impact changes over time 50 10 7 1

Answer 98

children have difficulty learning and using language, even though there is no obvious cause like hearing loss or intellectual disability. = Speech therapy and specialized support

Answer 99

self-esteem confidence learning relationships mental health

Answer 100

Reading accuracy in individuals with DLD/ SLI develops in parallel to normal children. But ability is consistently lower than normal peers.

Answer 101

isolated, rejection, cause emotinal wellbeing problems.

Answer 102

Objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight The occluded object retains its spatial & physical properties. The occluded object is still subject to physical laws Mental representation is necessary! Planning Deferred imitation

Answer 103

Sensorimotor (0-2) Pre-operational (2-7) Concrete operational (7-11) Formal operational (11+)

Answer 104

0-24 months Learns about world through actions and sensory information Learns to differentiate self from the environment Start to understand causality, and form internal mental representations…. Object permanence attained at 12 months, full internal representations by 18-24 months

Answer 105

Reflex activity Primary circular reactions Secondary circular reactions Coordination of secondary circular reactions Tertiary circular reactions Internal representation

Answer 106

Reflex activity (0-1 months) Practice innate reflexes (ex: sucking, looking) Primary circular reactions (1-4) Simple behaviours derived from basic reflexes Start repeating behaviour (ex: thumb sucking) Focused on body No differentiation between self and outside world

Answer 107

Secondary circular reactions (4-10) “secondary” behaviours = own, not reflexes Start to focus on objects Begin to change surroundings intentionally Ex: kick legs, hit mobile, kick legs again Establish connection between body movement and external environment

Answer 108

Coordination of secondary circular reactions (10-12) Engage with objects using a variety of actions Combine actions to achieve goals and solve novel problems Some evidence of means-ends behaviour Ex. move something out of way to reach and get toy But, not insightful, driven by trial-and-error Limited by existing repertoire of actions Lack flexibility A-not-B errors until 12 months egocentrism

Answer 109

Tertiary circular reactions (12-18) Still repetitive or circular behaviours Discover the properties of objects and the environment Understand objects through trial-and-error Not yet inventive or insightful Improvements in problem-solving Experiment with new actions, modify unsuccessful actions Still lack internal representations

Answer 110

Internal Representation (18-24) Now has mental representation of the world Can think and plan actions Deferred imitation Solve novel problems insightfully

Answer 111

Object permanence Begin to search for objects around 8-9 months A not B error until 12 months Goal-directed, structured behaviour: planning Not until stage 6 Ex: Lucienne versus Jacqueline and chain/box problem Deferred imitation (enduring mental rep.) Copying behaviour after a delay Not until stage 6

Answer 112

Methods: Observational methods, often with own children quantitative, experimental data rare “clinical method” rather than standardized Confounds: Motor coordination and motor planning deficits Inability to perform coordinated actions (means-end) Memory deficits Communication – biased by cues

Answer 113

Younger infants could show some evidence if: Simplify procedure in experimental studies Change procedure Change the dependent variable Earlier than Piaget predicted? Basic object permanence Planning Deferred imitation

Answer 114

3 conditions Normal design (object permenance) Covered but visible Visible and uncovered (other cog processes) Errors in all 3 conditions, even when object covered but visible Reflects lack of coordination, not necessarily lack of object permanence

Answer 115

One variation had infant stand instead of sit during “B” trial 10m old infants performed like 12m old Standing made the “A” position less salient

Answer 116

Darkness rather than occlusion by other objects (visual vs manual search) Shown object within reach, lights turned off Infants as young as 5m will grasp for out of sight objects (Bower and Wishart, 1972) But still just performing “reaching action” (extension of ongoing action or reproduction of previous action)? Take away the necessity of reaching Bower (1982) Baillargeon et al (1985) Baillargeon & deVos (1991) Violation of expectation Shown “possible” and “impossible” event Should show different reaction to “impossible” event

Answer 117

Infants a few months old, shown object, screen moved in front of object, then returned to original position 2 conditions: Object still in place versus empty space Monitored child’s heart rate Piaget: too young to have info about objects that are no longer present = no reaction Bower: faster heart rate (more surprise) in second (empty) condition

Answer 118

Should look longer at the impossible event If they find it surprising Drawbridge and solid box Experimental condition (box behind the drawbridge) Control (box next to the drawbridge) Experiment: Preference for impossible event Control: Only those who saw 180 event first, showed preference, only on 1st trial SO: Not because preferred 180 event, but because expectations violated Conclusion: Infants expected the screen to stop against the box Infants understood the box continued to exist Contrary to Piaget: Infants as young as 5m show object permanence Not an extension or repetition of previous action Supports idea that failure on previous tests result of interaction with other cognitive abilities

Answer 119

From early age infants “interpret physical events in accord with general principles of continuity and solidity” As young as 2.5 months These principles are innate or babies born with ability to acquire knowledge about object properties very quickly Criticisms of the VOE approach? Only indicates limited awareness of events (i.e. perceives a difference) Or perceptual preference for novelty, but not understanding Depends on what we’re using (e.g. overall looking time versus social looking…) Do looking preferences really tell us about what babies know? (see Schöner and Thelen, 2006)

Answer 120

Presented 6m olds with small (required 1 hand grasp) and large (2 hand grasp) objects Each object made identifying sound Infants made appropriate grip to reach for objects in darkness Authors conclude this is based on mental representations

Answer 121

Differences in motor patterns in adults for planned actions (Marteniuk et al., 1987) Precise actions = slower approach 10m infants encouraged to throw ball or fit it into a hole If motor patterns determined by ball properties, should find no difference If determined by upcoming action, should find a difference Reaching action slower for precise action

Answer 122

Toy out of reach on a cloth Cloth and toy blocked by a barrier 9-month old children performed sequence of actions to get toy Many on the 1st attempt Novel, planned actions Mental representation of the world used to organise behaviour

Answer 123

Meltzoff & Moore (1994): 6 weeks old Some infants saw adult make facial gesture, some saw neutral expression Day later, those who saw gesture were more likely to perform it to a neutral face Meltzoff (1995): 14m- & 16m-olds Experimenter performed series of actions with objects Both ages more likely to reproduce observed actions than those who did not see them Even after a FOUR MONTH DELAY!

Answer 124

Children given 3 repetitions of actions 6m no difference from control Supports Piaget’s view Additional 6m-olds given 6 repetitions of actions 6m now score significantly higher than control Evidence of deferred imitation in 6m-olds Also deferred imitation from videos! (Barr et al. 2007)

Answer 125

6m, 9m, 24m tested using puppet paradigm, 24hr delay Varied the context during retrieval (auditory and visual) Full flexibility/generalization not achieved until 12m

Answer 126

Children not born with fully developed object concept, but develop it over time Certain behaviours/abilities seem to emerge in similar order Children develop some aspects of mental representation earlier than Piaget suggested Contrary to the discrete stage view? Research designs affect results! Difficult to isolate object concept from other cognitive processes/abilities How would you measure mental representations?

Answer 127

genetic with environmental factors

Answer 128

young children have difficulty understanding that another persons belief about the world can be false

Answer 129

less than one week of age

Answer 130

* individual's understanding and mental representation of numbers such as Numerosity, counting, arithmetic. * lots of animals have, eg. need to know how many lions your against for survival. =

Answer 131

1. One-to-one principle 2. Stable-order principle 3. Cardinal principle 4. Order irrelevance principle 5. Abstraction principle 1,2 and 3 define counting procedure

Answer 132

One-to-One: each object in a set being counted should be assigned one and only one number. In other words, for each item, there is a unique number assigned to it, and no item is counted more than once or missed.

Answer 133

Stable-order: the order in which numbers are counted must always be consistent and fixed. eg. its 1,2,3,4,5 NOT 2,5,3,4,1

Answer 134

Cardinal principle: last number in a counting sequence represents the total quantity or cardinality of the set of objects being counted. eg. 1,2,3,4,5,6 is a set of 6

Answer 135

Order-irrelevance principle: result is the same regardless of order you count items in

Answer 136

Abstraction principle: these principles can be applied to any collection of objects (including intangible objects) eg. the total count of items remains the same regardless of the characteristics or nature of the objects.

Answer 137

when they cant explicitly explain these rules, but they understand them and apply them naturally. 5yrs - some children 3 years

Answer 138

3 to 5-year-olds tested on 3 principles: One-to-one Stable order Cardinal children dont do themselves, they monitor the performance of a puppet. puppet does counting and child says if its right or not

Answer 139

One-to-One principle: 3 types of trials Correct In-error (Skipped or double-counted)(make an error) Pseudoerror (weird way of counting but not incorrect) Stable-order principle: 2 types of trials Correct In-error: (Reversed: 1,3,2,4; Randomly-ordered: 3,1,4,2; Skipped tags: 1,3,4) Cardinality: 2 types of trials Correct In-error (not right amount of items. Nth value + 1; Less than N; Irrelevant feature of object, e.g. colour)

Answer 140

Very high accuracy on correct trials One-to-one: 100% Stable-order: 96% and higher (+) Cardinal: 96% + High accuracy on incorrect trials One-to one: 67% + (3yrs); 82% + (4yrs) Stable-order: 76% + (3), 96% + (4-5) Cardinal: 85% + (3), 99% + (4-5) Pseudo-errors detected as peculiar, but not incorrect (95% and higher accuracy) Even able to articulate why in some cases Show understanding of order-irrelevance Older children performed better, BUT Success rates not affected by set size(n.of items a child can count too) – even for young children better at saying when things are right then wrong.

Answer 141

Children as young as 3 understand the principles Even though they can’t articulate them Understanding demonstrated even in set sizes too big for children to count Children show IMPLICIT knowledge of these principles

Answer 142

Ability to understand that tags can be assigned arbitrarily, does NOT imply understanding that: Differently ordered counts produce the same cardinal designation ... Children counting themselves (not error-detection) * Children shown 8 items * Count them left to right and then indicate the cardinal value of set * Then asked “Can you make this number 1”? (pointing to right-most item) * “We got N counting this way, what do you think we would get counting the other way?” * During this, they could no longer see the array – so had to PREDICT

Answer 143

All but 1 child could recount in the opposite direction BUT, only 45% of 5yr-olds, and 87% of 7yr-olds were successful in prediction task

Answer 144

Conclusion: Understanding of order-irrelevance develops with age Young children’s understanding of principles overestimated “Principles-after” concept -

Answer 145

Task affects how children perform: could be due to misinterpretation of instructions, not lack of understanding Procedure: 3 groups Baroody replication changed= Count 3x: 3 opportunities to count first then did= Altered-question: 'can u start with 8' “How many will there be” or “What will you get” results: if given 3 attempts try dif ways

Answer 146

1. Child asked to give ‘N’ number of items 2. Up to ‘4-knowers’ (can consistently give you 4 numbers) called ‘subset’ knowers Only know how a subset of numbers work Switch to Cardianal Principle-knower Can solve flexibly across sets, not restricted Really understand how counting works, evidenced across a variety of tasks.

Answer 147

Young children demonstrate some understanding of counting principles Implicit knowledge (can’t articulate) Young children might be limited by larger sets The task matters! Counting versus error-detection Subtle changes in type of questions used “Give N” most typically used to date How much of numerical knowledge is innate?

Answer 148

Empiricism: knowledge comes from experience, develops gradually Nativism: innate understanding of some aspects of number concept, “core knowledge” Do very young infants show understanding of numbers? What about nonhuman animals (no language, no exposure to number system)?

Answer 149

Can use with very young infants to gauge innate knowledge Procedure Example: Habituation to 4 dots Followed by exposure to 2 dots Results: Looked longer at 2 dots Conclusion: Understand numerosity? Basic discrimination?

Answer 150

habituating them to the number not the set pattern Larger numbers, controlled for other properties of the arrays found= 6-month-olds discriminated between 8 and 16 dots Replicated with 4 vs 8 and 16 vs 32 dots, can do early on BUT, infants can’t do 3:2 ratios until 9 months (ex: 8 vs.12) eg. 8 vs 12 Ability to detect more precise ratios continues with development

Answer 151

5 month old infants Looking time procedure Shown different mathematical outcomes asking is it a basic discrimination or is it a numerical concept. have a stage inftont of baby: see puppet and screen comes up covering it and see another one added, if paying attention they shopuld have anticipation of the possible outcome (2 items there) do it with subtraction aswell, from 2 to 1, have anticipation, should have possible outcome of 1. ... looking at whether or not babies have some kind of interest in 1 or 2 objects, important control. found no diferemnce in looking times. = children looked longer at the 'incorrect result' eg. 2 puppets not 1

Answer 152

2 Hypotheses: 1. Infants compute precise results of simple additions/subtractions 2. Infants expect arithmetical operation to result in numerical change (no expectation of size/ or direction of change) = 1+1 = 2 OR 3 Infants preferred 3 in the trials, but not pre-test trials (nothing more interesting than 3 vs 2) 5-month olds can calculate precise results of simple arithmetical operations Infants possess true numerical concepts Suggests humans innately possess capacity to perform these calculations Replicated with larger sets (ex: 10 v. 5; McCrink & Wynn, 2005)

Answer 153

3 Experiments Replications of Wynn (1992) exps 1 & 2 added= Subtraction counterpart to Wynn’s Exp 3, to 1+1=2 or 3 changed to= 3-1 = 1 or 2 Controls for possibility that preferred answer is always greater number of items Results No systematic preference for “incorrect” versus “correct” conclusions: Earlier findings of numerical competence not replicated did a...Review of literature = found inconsistent results. in methods, results and findings. Infants’ reactions are variable Numerical competencies not robust and is....Gradual and continual progress in abilities with age. not innate.

Answer 154

* Procedural differences affected attentiveness of infants- tricky to balance systematic methods with children cause they change lots and loose concentration. * Use of computer program versus experimenter to determine start - Didn’t ensure infant saw complete trial, Exclusion of “fussy” infants higher in Wynn’s (and other) studies. if exclude have bias. Replication and debate key to science!

Answer 155

animals good at discriminating numbers for food and survival. evidence of counting, a single grey parrot.

Answer 156

Nativist view dominant Born with some innate ability, which expands with age/experience? (ex: Carey, 2009) This inborn ability shared with other animals? BUT Experience/culture still important! Cross-culturally: Language, counting practices impact representation and processing of number (ex. Gobel et al., 2011) Within-cultures: Number-talk from parents predicts CP knowledge, related to later performance in school (ex. Gunderson & Levine, 2011)

Answer 157

Learning is the result of the interaction between a child and a more knowledgeable individual Culture provides the context within which interactions take place Language provides the means through which meanings are shared

Answer 158

is fundamentally shaped by culture. He emphasized that human development is deeply embedded in social and cultural contexts. According to Vygotsky, individuals are shaped by the cultural tools and practices they interact with from a young age.

Answer 159

ZDP = difference between actual performance and potential performance How the child learns with help of others At level beyond existing skill (but not too far)

Answer 160

Through language that the child develops as learner AND thinker Importance of the external monologue (how thoughts are organised) Transition from language as tool for communication to a tool for thought Help organize and plan behaviour Internalized to become inner speech ~ 7 years Contrast to Piaget: Saw monologue as evidence of egocentrism

Answer 161

How knowledge is passed from expert adult to novice child Recruitment: engage interest of child Reduction of degrees of freedom: reduce number of acts required, simplify Direction maintenance: keep motivation up Marking critical features: highlight relevant features Demonstration: modelling solutions

Answer 162

but rather the ability of humans to learn through other persons and their artifacts, and to collaborate with others in collective activities” (Tomasello & Carpenter, 2007, p.1)

Answer 163

- social learning - Cultures (e.g. music, language, art, fashion, history) - Tools and technology (e.g. computers, internet, cars) Many animals socially learn, some even exhibit cultures or traditions Cultures not as complex no evidence for cumulative culture

Answer 164

.... special social-cognitive skills (ex: theory of mind, social learning, communication, cooperation, imitation, teaching) ....from demonstrator and observer Role of skilled “demonstrator”: Scaffolding, teaching, “natural pedagogy” Shared intentionality? Or Social affiliation? Natural tendency to want to share information or combine efforts toward common goals.

Answer 165

- “Primed” to attend to demonstrator’s cues (Csibra & Gergely, 2009) - Copying to higher level of fidelity - Imitation as supposed to Emulation (focusing more on the end goal than on the exact steps observed.) (and other forms) - overimitate (copy relevant AND irrelevant features, Lyons et al. 2011) Able to learn even “opaque” technologies and arbitrary cultural customs

Answer 166

Children do not learn in a vacuum Vygotsky introduced the importance of the social and cultural context Active scaffolding, teaching, and communication guide learning .... human advantage

Answer 167

- used to assess whether a child has developed the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror. - mark placed on childs nose - then placed in front of a mirror and observed to see if they show any signs of recognizing that the mark is on their face and attempt to remove it. Infants (typically under 18 months): Most infants do not pass the mirror test at this age. They may show interest in their reflection but do not demonstrate awareness of the mark on their face. Between 18-24 months: Many children begin to pass the test around 18 to 24 months of age. At this point, they start to show signs of self-awareness by touching the mark on their face after seeing it in the mirror. Older Children: By 3 years old, most children reliably pass the test, demonstrating a more developed sense of self.

Answer 168

Povinelli et al (1996) 1. Sticker unobtrusively placed on head 2. Videos and photos taken of 2-4-yr-olds 3. Showed them videos/photos after delay 4. Older 3 & 4 yrs: reached for sticker 5. Younger children did not but Could label photo or video correctly DID remove or touch sticker when presented with mirror Full temporal sense of self develops after 3 yrs

Answer 169

...refers to the ability of a child to form an internal representation of a social being, typically emerging around 18 months. Familiarity start to show Different behaviour to familiar vs strange adults (7-9 months) they display similar responses toward familiar and unfamiliar peers. (10-12 months) Age Discriminate children and adults by 6-12 months Use verbal age labels by 18-24 months Gender Discriminate between women and men strangers (9-12 months) Use verbal gender labels around 19 months In the first year of life children learn to differentiate people based on familiarity, age, gender,

Answer 170

Positive and negative affect only after birth From a few months on basic “primary emotions” (joy, interest, anger, sadness) 7 months: fear responses, anger vs. pain Izard et al (1987) 2- 8 months 2-3 years “secondary emotions” (embarrassment, pride, shame) EX: Fear + Anger = Hate, envy

Answer 171

Discriminate emotions early on (10wks - Haviland & Lelwica,1987) Social referencing, look to caregivers or adults, to gather emotional information and cues about how to react in uncertain or unfamiliar situations. example- child will crawl to unfamiliar area if mother smiles to reasure them, but if they make a scared face the child wont crawl into the unknown area.

Answer 172

..Learn to regulate emotion ... Switch from external to internal management takes a long time to develop, some dont. ...Emotion regulation and social competence Accuracy in recognizing emotions = better acceptance by peers Links to developmental outcomes later in life .... delayed maturation in the pre-frontal cortex

Answer 173

Precursors to this understanding: 1- Self-awareness (18-20 months) verbally express emotional states (2yrs) 2- Capacity for pretence (2-3yrs) Pretend something in world is something else 3- Distinguishing reality from pretence (3-4yrs) Combine these to start understanding other peoples’ emotions, desires, beliefs

Answer 174

Other people have a mental representation of the world that is different from our own (beliefs, feelings, etc) .. social interactions “theory” : cannot see or touch the mind, have to infer Crucial to success in social world Develops with age How do we test this in children?

Answer 175

Wimmer & Perner (1983): In the task: children are presented with a short story involving a character named Maxi, who places a chocolate bar in a basket and then leaves the room. While Maxi is gone, another character (called Sally) moves the chocolate bar from the basket to a box. The key question is then asked: “Where will Maxi look for the chocolate when he returns?” 1- green cuboard where it was secretly moved to? 2- or blue cuboard where it was when he left? results: Young children (around 3 years old) typically fail the task and say that Maxi will look in the box, because they assume that Maxi knows what they know (the child has not yet developed a full Theory of Mind). This is because at this stage, they struggle with understanding that someone can hold a false belief.Older children (around 4 to 5 years old) typically pass the task and say that Maxi will look in the basket, correctly recognizing that Maxi%E2%80%99s belief about the chocolate is based on his own experiences and not the child's knowledge. conclusion: children do not typically understand that others can hold beliefs that are incorrect until they are around 4 or 5 years old. Too complicated Sally-Anne Task (Baron-Cohen et al.,1985) 4-yr-olds solve! 3-yr-olds do not Smarties task 4 & older solve

Answer 176

Sally-Anne Task task: Sally places a marble in her basket and then leaves the room. While Sally is gone, Anne moves the marble from Sally's basket to a box. The key question for the child is then: "Where will Sally look for the marble when she returns?" results: Children around 4 years old and older generally pass the task. They understand that Sally holds a false belief (that the marble is still in the basket) and correctly predict that she will look in the basket.

Answer 177

- 2yrs + use words about their internal states (what they want/desire/like/need eg. i want cookie) - - 3yrs + use more complex cognitive terms that relate to knowledge, memory, and awareness (eg. i know where my toy is) - that seeing something means knowing about Masangkay et al (1974) - In this study, a child and an adult are shown a card with a picture on it. The card is then placed in a way that the child can see it but the adult cannot. The child is then asked about what the adult knows, based on whether the adult has seen the card. The results showed that 3-4-year-olds were able to distinguish between what they knew (because they saw the card) and what the adult knew (or didn’t know), demonstrating an understanding that seeing leads to knowing.

Answer 178

... understand that an object can look like one thing but actually be something different - 3-year-olds have trouble understanding that an object can appear one way but actually be something else. - Flavell et al (1986): e.g. rock/sponge and realism errors ( where children confuse appearance with reality.) Predicting behaviour 2yrs understand that people have desires (e.g. Sam and his rabbit) 3yrs understand that people have beliefs (e.g. Amy and the books) But do not yet understand that others can act on inaccurate beliefs (understanding false beliefs) (…….or do they?)

Answer 179

Wellman et al (2001) review of 180 false belief studies Very few 2yr olds Minority 3yr olds 4+ yrs usually passed question= 2-3-year-olds may look at the correct location where the object is believed to be (i.e., they show implicit knowledge of the false belief). However, they still struggle to verbalize or explicitly express that others can act on false beliefs, which is why they fail in the traditional false belief tasks. (Southgate et al., 2007) VoE experiments: In some conditions, 15 month olds could correctly predict behaviour on false belief task suggesting even very young children may have an implicit understanding of false belief (Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005)

Answer 180

Measured activation in motor cortex of adults and children (activated when the actor has false belief that ball is in the box) found: - Both adults and infants exhibited activation in the motor cortex when the actor acted based on the false belief - 6-month-old infants showed the same brain activity, so may be capable of predicting actions based on another person’s beliefs, even when those beliefs are false conclude: 6 months, are able to predict actions based on the agent’s beliefs. Theory of Mind may develop earlier than previously thought.

Answer 181

once they have learned something or gained a certain knowledge, have difficulty imagining or understanding the perspective of someone who doesn't have that same knowledge.

Answer 182

Varied the amount knowledge state of the observer Ignorance: “moves the violin to another container” Knowledge-plausible: “moves the violin to the red container” Knowledge-implausible: “moves the violin to the purple container” conc= knowledge states play a critical role in how we predict and understand the behavior of others.

Answer 183

Language Children who perform better on false belief tasks tend to have better language abilities Children with caregivers who use more mental state (frequently talk about mental states—such as thoughts, feelings, desires, and beliefs) terms earlier perform better Interaction with peers/family Those with older siblings do better (Ruffman et al., 1998) Larger families, more interaction with adults and siblings also do better (Lewis et al., 1996)

Answer 184

Understanding surprise 5yrs (not 4) chose the correct “surprise” face over neutral face (Hadwin & Perner, 1991) Deception Ex: lie about preferred sticker to puppet to avoid losing it (Peskin, 1992) 5 yrs could lie from beginning 4 yrs got better over trials 3 yrs never learned to lie

Answer 185

False-belief tradtional tasks eg.Sally-Anne task 1st order beliefs - my mum thinking about me thinking about my dog 2nd order beliefs- my mum thinking about me thinking about my dog whos thinking about food. False 2nd order belief (false belief about someone else’s belief) eg. Sarah believes that John thinks the book is on the table (but John actually thinks the book is on the shelf). comes about AT 5-6 years (Miller, 2009)

Answer 186

correct asnwer = is that you dont know 5-8 yr olds - Make sure child can see both interpretations “What will Ann see?” 5 yr olds could not give a good answer Even some 8 yr olds had trouble

Answer 187

1- Found very diverse definitions of TOM 2- But, most studies relying on same 4-5 tests Individual differencess in AToM related to inhibition and language skills NOT empathy (suggests that cognitive abilities may be more important than emotional factors in developing a theory of mind.) Are these tests really getting at social cognition? (e.g. Quesque & Rosetti, 2020) What about diverse social backgrounds and experiences?

Answer 188

Conceptual Change Between 3-5 Years Children between 3 and 5 years begin to develop the concept of meta-representations, where they understand that mental states can be inaccurate and don’t always reflect reality. This is evident in the differences between 3- and 4-year-olds on traditional false-belief tasks. However, this understanding develops gradually and is not a sudden acquisition. Ongoing Development A “realist” tendency often causes children to override their understanding of beliefs. Other cognitive abilities may mask this understanding. Evidence suggests that children perform better on tasks when complexity and cognitive demands are reduced, and their understanding of mental states continues to develop over time. There may also be some decline on certain measures as children grow older.

Answer 189

.... Voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another(Eisenberg et al., 2006) by... Sharing, helping, comforting Altruistic vs. Prosocial .... Motivated purely by desire to help another, at cost to oneself (ex. Anonymous donation) .... Pattern of behaviour, regardless of motivation (potential benefit/associated costs to the donor) eg sharing icecream with another child ALT= giving it to make them happier PROC= so that your parents may say well done, or people see you being kind

Answer 190

survival .... more likely to assist genetically related individuals (humans & nonhumans) ( natural selection) Benefit the survival of the group? Ex: Eisenberg (1983) 7-17yr-olds more likely to help family, friends, similar background - more likley to help those related to you or closley affiliated woth you or similar to you. ... Enhance reputation/acceptance within group, learn to follow norms of behaviour

Answer 191

Are humans naturally prosocial? Spontaneous prosocial behaviour in children from relatively early age, kids willing to help others early on Some evidence from twin studies of genetic contribution to prosocial tendencies = twins more similar have more similar prococial tendancies Conditioned or socially learned? defo inflienced by.... Early attachment to parents Parental/ adult responses to behaviour important interaction between both!!!

Answer 192

When does it emerge? - Around first birthday, helping behaviour emerges - Rapidly increases in toddler/preschooler period, and then slowly thereafter into early adulthood. .... At least into late adolescence ... Shift to act according to moral principles, rather than for selfish motivations or to gain approval

Answer 193

Reinforce prosocial behaviour - .... Prompting and reinforcement both encouraged prosocial donations (ex. Donation game, do you wanna share some pennies you have so many! or well done for sharing) - Explicit scaffolding (encouragement and praise) increases prosocial behaviour in infants (ex: Dahl et al., 2017) Modelling prosocial behaviour .... Observing helpful behaviour increases prosocial behaviour in infants (ex: Schuhmacher et al., 2018) .... Children who see model donate are more likely to themselves (more impact than “preaching”) (copying) More likely to copy skilled, warm, and familiar models

Answer 194

Artificial environment Unfamiliar experimenters (lab) , some deception Really measuring prosocial behaviour? .... some have looked them long term and No effect of modelling after 3-week follow-up ( argue there just trying to work out what there expected to do in the experiment, copy and then forget) Zarbatany et al (1985): older children only affected by experimenter influence, not peer influence measuring age differences in conformity

Answer 195

... Observe spontaneous, naturally occurring behaviour (directly or through reports) Zahn-Waxler et al (2001): 14-36 months Mothers report responses to events in which negative emotions expressed ( look sad) and see how children respond find= Increase in empathic responses with age ask parents what they think the motivation of child is? = praise, social affiliation, fun, ask Harmond & Bromwell (2018) Parents asked to report on helping behaviour and motivations in 1-4-year-olds Helping increased with age

Answer 196

Warneken & Tomasello (2006) 24 18-month-olds Experimental condition: demonstrated needing help by looking at an object, attempting (but failing) to achieve a goal. Control: experimenter maintained a neutral face toward object Examples: Hanging up clothes Opening cabinet Stacking books Retrieving spoon = kids helpful, more helpful in experimental condition, but they tend ot help anyway. children Helped more than chimpanzees (ex:chimp) Unfamiliar adult (chimpanzees are helping a different species) More sophisticated cognitive skills Natural tendency to help others

Answer 197

Parenting styles and response secure attachment = higher empathy Parents who are empathic, respond sensitively, encourage empathy Perspective-taking ability- theory of mind Ability to regulate emotions- keeping own emotions in check. Cross-cultural differences differences in different societys, different societys may show diferent types of prosociality. eg uk= competative. - Values placed on cooperation vs. competition, individualism vs. support

Answer 198

.... reason or judge whether an action is right or wrong Piaget (of course!) and Kohlberg

Answer 199

... children understood “rules of the game”, corresponds to “rules of society” 3-stages of understanding 1) Premoral (Up to 4 years): rules not understood 2) Moral realism/Heteronomous (4 to 10): rules come from higher authority, cannot be changed (tag is played this way we cant change the rules) 3) Moral subjectivism/Autonomous (10+): rules mutually agreed by players, can change ( tag is played this way bit it would be mroe fun if we did this so if we all agree on it we can collectivly change the rule) Linaza (1984): cross-cultural test English & Spanish children Confirmed Piaget’s findings

Answer 200

Dilemma method: which child is naughtiest? Up to 9/10 years, children judge based on amount of damage, not motive or intention- one of the stories would be classic one used in textbooks, eg. a child reaches for a cookie and climb for it and knock over a cup and break it. compared to... a child who opens a door but there are 12 cups (which they didnt know were there) and nock over which is naughtier? - we would say the first one cause they had the intention to break -children say the more you break the naughtier so they think the second is worse. Problems with this design? Unequal damage distracts children “bad intentions” are vague as they dont explicitly say the first example is naught. Memory demands too high for young children Underestimation of ability? ex: if damage is equal, children as young as 5 yrs will judge based on intent (correct) 2-5 yr olds can differentiate between violations of social convention and moral conventions (Smetana, 1981) Moral conventions relate to rules about right and wrong that are considered universal and rooted in ethical principles. and Social conventions are culturally specific norms and rules that govern behavior to maintain order and predictability in social interactions.

Answer 201

Across the life-span, not just childhood, Much more intense study of over 30 years .... stories of “dilemmas” Crucial aspect was why something was or wasn’t wrong

Answer 202

In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? Why?

Answer 203

Developed 3 levels of reasoning, each with 2 stages Preconventional Conventional Postconventional

Answer 204

.... relation to self, little understanding of shared rules Seek pleasure, avoid punishment Children under 9, some adolescents, adult “criminal offenders” Stage 1: Concerned with authority, obey rules to avoid punishment Stage 2: Weigh the risks and benefits Recognize others might have different interests Action determined by one’s needs

Answer 205

.... Importance of rules, expectations, conventions of society Most adolescents and adults Stage 3: focus on interpersonal relationships Being good = having good motives Living up to what is “expected” of you Approval/disapproval of others important Stage 4: focus on society as a whole Performing one’s duty to maintain social order

Answer 206

.... Understanding of moral principles underlying laws 20+ years Stage 5: importance of functioning society AND individual rights Usually not until 20+ yrs, and not everyone! Stage 6 Following universal ethical principles When law violates principle, act in accordance to principle

Answer 207

He shouldn’t steal the drug because: Stage 1: “he might get caught” Stage 2: “it won’t do him any good because his wife will be dead when he gets out of jail” Stage 3: “others will think he is a thief” Stage 4: “his wife’s condition doesn’t justify stealing” Stage 5: “although the druggist is being unfair, we must respect the rights of others” Stage 6: He should steal the drug, but should give himself up. He’ll have to pay the price, but will have saved a life

Answer 208

"We shouldn't consider war..." "because it would hurt our economy..."(Stage 1) "because we'll have more money for domestic issues..."(Stage 2) "because we don' t want to appear too militaristic..."(Stage 3) "because war is killing and killing is against the law..."(Stage 4) "even though the situation is bad, war is damaging to people and property and society agrees that is bad..."(Stage 5) "although atrocities have been committed, it would be an even greater atrocity to wage war..." (Stage 6)

Answer 209

diallemas are too artificial, not reliable cultural bias gender bias

Answer 210

.... artificial, and not reliable Clinical interview method too subjective ** Better scoring system developed by his phd student (Colby et al. 1987) Cultural Bias Snarey (1985) review of studies in 27 cultures Similar progression through stages 1-4, but Stage 5 only found in urban societies Biased toward cultures favouring individualism ** Approaches which take into account the diversity of values within cultures

Answer 211

Gender bias All original participants male Stages reflect specifically “male morality” Gilligan (1982) Criticized both Piaget and Kohlberg of negative views of “female morality” Argued females more concerned about impact behaviour has on others “people before principles” (female) vs. “principles before people” (male)

Answer 212

Prosocial behaviour Develops rapidly throughout toddler/preschool years Shaped by reinforcement and modelling Linked to many other cognitive abilities Are we inherently prosocial and this then encouraged or do we learn to be prosocial? Moral reasoning Continues to develop into adulthood Views of morality shaped by culture More diverse, cross-cultural studies needed! (see Atari et al., 2020 for an example)

Answer 213

Physical changes Sexual maturity Growth spurt (5-6cm per year in childhood, 9-10cm in adolescence) Brain development “remodeling of the brain” areas affecting emotional regulation, response inhibition, planning Increase white matter, decrease grey matter Greater plasticity in the brain (more sensitive to input) Psychological changes? Risk-taking, moodiness, aggression? Transition from childhood to adulthood

Answer 214

Generally: Early (11-14 years) Middle (15-17 years) Late (18+ years) When does it end? 25 years

Answer 215

Erikson and Identity Crisis “Storm and Stress” model Conflict with Parents Mood disruption

Answer 216

Theory of psychosocial development Different “conflict” at each stage which must be resolved successfully (Ex: trust vs. mistrust in 1st year) Identity Crisis in adolescence What is an identity? “a subjective sense as well as an observable quality of personal sameness and continuity, paired with some belief in the sameness and continuity of some shared world image” “Psychosocial moratorium”= trying out lots of identities and figuring out which one is the one for them

Answer 217

Interview technique to assess stage of identity crisis Occupational role, beliefs & values, sexuality Identified 4 identity “statuses” Diffusion: haven’t started thinking about it seriously (no identity crisis or commitment) Foreclosure: formed commitment without having explored possibilities Moratorium: still considering alternatives Achievement of identity: been through crisis and reached a solution

Answer 218

Identity Achievement is a concept from James Marcia's (1966) Identity Status Theory, which builds upon Erik Erikson’s stage of Identity vs. Role Confusion. It represents the most developed stage of identity formation, where an individual has explored various options and made a clear commitment to their values, beliefs, and goals. May develop into adulthood Meilman (1979) O’Connell (1976): women reported i.d. achieved after children went to school Criticisms: moratorium status for different areas at different times Gradual changes into adulthood

Answer 219

Adolescence traditionally viewed as period of turbulence Socrates: youth inclined to "contradict their parents" & "tyrannize their teachers” (taken from Arnett, 1999) Conflict with parents, risky behaviour, mood disruptions More recent empirical evidence suggests a modified view is necessary Not experienced by all adolescents Over-exaggerated

Answer 220

Conflicts increase in early adolescence, intensity peaks in middle adolescence (14-18 yrs, Laursen et al., 1998) Dip in closeness from 10 to 16 years, recovers at 25 (Rossi & Rossi, 1991) Conflicts may not be as high as expected Only 1/6 of parents and 1/3 of adolescents reported conflicts (Rutter et al., 1976) Even in conflict situations, often concern mundane matters (chores, appearance, finance) Core values and attachment typically maintained Helps develop autonomy in safe environment?

Answer 221

Adolescents report more mood disruptions than children or adults Some longitudinal studies report negative affect (Buchanan et al. 1992) Adolescent turmoil over-exaggerated? (Rutter et al., 1976) Modest peak of reported mood disruptions in adolescence (compared to 10 yr olds) Only roughly 1/5 reported mood disruption

Answer 222

Important cognitive changes during adolescence Important social changes; shift from childhood to adulthood Conflict with autonomy and dependence Is a period of turmoil and change BUT this has been exaggerated somewhat Cultural trends favouring individualism may lead to more conflict

Answer 223

Young adulthood (20-40 yrs*) Acquisition & utilization of knowledge at peak Achieve maturity Erikson’s conflict: intimacy vs. isolation (forming inimate relationships Middle adulthood (roughly 40-64 yrs*) Some decline, but also intellectual stability Peak of career achievement Erikson’s conflict: generativity vs. stagnation Late adulthood (64 yrs+) Memory and other abilities decline; some might remain stable Erikson’s conflict: integrity vs. despair

Answer 224

All cognitive abilities fully developed by adolescence, right? WRONG! All abilities decline after 30, right? WRONG!

Answer 225

Piaget’s formal operations (11+ yrs) logic, inferential reasoning, planning, ability to think about abstract concepts, hypothetical situations Criticisms: limited to straightforward situations, not complexities & vagaries of real-life situations Post-formal thinking, 3 themes (Kramer, 1983): Realization of “realitivistic” nature of knowledge Acceptance of contradiction Integration of contradiction into a whole concept

Answer 226

Information processing (e.g. perceptual speed & numerical ability) Social cognition Functional changes in brain areas related to social cognition Increased performance on tasks Ex: Vetter et al. 2012 Strange stories task & Eyes task (last week!) Young/mid adolescents (12-15 yrs) performed with lower accuracy than late adolescents/young adults (18-22 yrs) Individual differences in basic cognitive abilities and gender did not influence age differences

Answer 227

General stability in cognitive abilities Some slight decreases Some evidence of increase in certain areas: Seattle Longitudinal Study – inductive reasoning, vocabulary, verbal memory, & spatial orientation peak from 40-60yrs (Willis & Schaie, 1999) Soederbreg et al (2000): MA (40-59) showed no declines compared to YA (25-39) outperformed YA on vocabulary tests

Answer 228

General decline in cognitive ability Ex: Significantly better performance in Middle (M = 55) than late adulthood (M = 83) on 14 cognitive abilities (Finkel et al., 1998) Largest difference in perceptual speed Decline in ages 60-67 in all tested areas except verbal recall (Schaie et al., 1998) Terminal decline Cognitive functioning often lower several years prior to death (Salthouse, 2012)

Answer 229

Some abilities might remain intact Little evidence of relation between age (20 to 75-yr-olds) & functioning in society Role of experience (ex: pilots – experience more important determinant of crash risk than aging)

Answer 230

Different abilities affected more Relationship between physical health and cognitive ability Type of job Genetic influence Genes

Answer 231

Condition manifesting before adulthood that alters typical development Motor, cognitive, socio-emotional One (specific) or more (pervasive) of these areas affected Can manifest in delay or deficit or difference CAVEAT! Language matters (and is always changing)! Diagnostic manuals and some practitioners will refer to “neurodevelopmental disorders” (Reserved to those with a functional impairment in day-to-day life)

Answer 232

Chromosomal abnormalities Genetic mutation Down syndrome (extra copy of chromosome 21) Prenatal factors Damage while in womb (oxygen deprivation, maternal infection, structural differences in brain) Ex: Cerebral Palsy Unknown combination Genetic, environmental, psychological, neurological

Answer 233

Person-first (person with autism)= Emphasizes the person before the condition, separating the individual from their diagnosis. vs. identity-first (autistic person):= Puts the identity (autism) first, reflecting that it is an inherent and important part of the person.

Answer 234

Early descriptions (Kanner, 1943; Asperger, 1944) Low IQ “autistic aloneness” – inability relate to others “desire for sameness” – upset by changes Wing & Gould (1979): Triad of impairments A: Impairments in social interaction (lack of eye-to-eye contact, failure to develop peer relations) B: Impairments in communication (language delay, lack of varied make-believe play) C: Restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour (narrow interests, ritualistic or compulsive behaviours)

Answer 235

Currently, or by history, must meet criteria A, B, C, and D A. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across contexts, not accounted for by general developmental delays, and manifest by all 3 of the following: 1. Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity 2. Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction 3. Deficits in developing and maintaining relationships B. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities as manifested by at least two of the following: 1. Stereotyped or repetitive speech, motor movements, or use of objects 2. Excessive adherence to routines, ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior, or excessive resistance to change 3. Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus 4. Hyper-or hypo-reactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of environment C. Symptoms must be present in early childhood (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities D. Symptoms together limit and impair everyday functioning.

Answer 236

Different characteristics and combinations of criteria, varying severity May show “islets of ability”: equivalent to, or better than neurotypical people (e.g. rote memory, spatial tasks) ~3x more men/boys diagnosed than women/girls Might be down to different presentation/outdated or biased view of autism Similar difficulties in diagnosis with non-binary individuals and ethnic minorities

Answer 237

Hereditary component? Some evidence from twin and family studies Structural differences in the brain Connection or structural differences in the brain? Differences between girls and boys? (e.g. Smith et al, 2019) NEED MORE DATA! (Mo et al, 2021) BUT: To date, no clear genetic/ neurological explanation

Answer 238

Diagnosed and defined using behavioural criteria Some signs appear early (12-18 months) Typically around 3+ years, but can go undiagnosed Increase recently in numbers, largely due to better diagnostic material and understanding of impairments Developmental outcomes highly variable Why so much variability in terms of what develops, when, and in whom?

Answer 239

Many theories attempt to explain differences, including: Executive Functioning Weak Central Coherence Theory of Mind Deficit CAVEAT! We will discuss some outdated literature so that you can better understand the work that has built upon it!

Answer 240

Executive Functioning (EF) = an umbrella term ex: planning, organising, inhibition, impulse control, sustaining attention Can repetitive, restricted behaviours be explained by impairment in executive control? early difficulties in EF might play role in developmental outcomes Correlation between EF and ToM Weak Central Coherence Central coherence = TD people have tendency to process incoming info globally WCC = bias for featural or local information, details Proposed to explain certain aspects of autism (Frith & Happe, 1994) Ex: Islets of ability, excellent rote memory, preoccupation with parts of objects Superiority in detail, rather than deficit in global?

Answer 241

How might a ToM deficit lead to social impairments? Limits effective social understanding Makes it difficult to interpret behaviour of others Makes it difficult to communicate Might explain sameness and routine indirectly Apply the same tests used with neurotypical children (remember lecture 7!)

Answer 242

Sally-Anne false belief task Autism with mental age >4 TD children aged 4 Down’s syndrome with mental age >4 RESULTS: 80% of TD & DS solved Only 20% of autistic group Perner et al (1989) Similar results with Smarties task

Answer 243

Autistic children could order & explain mechanical and behavioural stories Difficulty ordering “mentalistic” stories Randomly ordered, and only reported what they could see, no mental states

Answer 244

Not all children fail these tasks Autistic children sometimes perform at TD levels Challenge universality of ToM deficits, and thus the hypothesis? Not necessarily (Happe, 1995) Autistic children don’t solve until much older than TD children Perhaps relying on different strategies on simpler tasks? What about more challenging ToM tasks?

Answer 245

“Where does Anne think Sally will look for the marble?” Some autistic individuals can solve these tasks

Answer 246

More natural, complex challenge than false belief tasks (Happe, 1994) Participants read short story and are asked why a character say something they don’t mean literally (white lie, pretend, joking, idioms): One day Aunt Jane came to visit Peter. Now Peter loves his aunt very much, but today she is wearing a new hat; a new hat, which Peter thinks is very ugly indeed. Peter thinks his aunt looks silly in it, and much nicer in her old hat. But when Aunt Jane asks Peter “What do you think of my new hat?” Peter says, “Oh, it’s very nice” Was it true what Peter said? Why did he say it? Even those who passed 2nd order ToM tasks were impaired Too vocabulary-loaded?

Answer 247

Infer mental states from eyes alone Designed to address ToM abilities beyond those of a 6-yr-old Choose between correct emotion and “foil” (ex: concerned vs. unconcerned) Autistic group significantly impaired compared to TD group and Tourette Syndrome group Is it really measuring ToM? Test has been criticized, particularly by autistic people

Answer 248

Empirical Failures of the Claim That Autistic People Lack a Theory of Mind” Failures of specificity Failures of universality Failures of replicability Failures of validity

Answer 249

Many non-autistic individuals fail these tasks Children with other developmental conditions as well Neurotypical children more likely to fail if they have fewer siblings, fewer adult relatives living nearby Not all autistic participants fail these tasks Why do some pass and others don’t? ToM tasks rely heavily on spoken language Longitudinal studies suggest vocabulary predicts performance on false belief tasks more than age Meta-analyses comparing autistic vs non-autistic individuals found that vocabulary predicts false belief performance more than whether or not an individual is autistic Really only tapping into communication impairments?

Answer 250

Failure to replicate earlier findings Ex. Baron-Cohen et al (1986) – no other study has found the same differences Strange stories and Sally-Anne tasks also mixed results Small sample sizes in original studies? Failures of convergent validity Are different ToM tests measuring the same construct? Performance on many ToM tasks isn’t correlated (e.g. performance on strange stories and reading the mind in the eyes tasks) Failures of predictive validity Does performance on ToM tasks predict socioemotional function? Evidence that does not significantly predict empathy/emotional understanding, social skills, peer relations/pro-social behaviour and more

Answer 251

Double-empathy problem (e.g. Milton, 2012; Mitchell et al, 2021) Autistic and non-autistic people have different social communication styles Breakdown in mutual understanding Sheppard et al (2016) Autistic and Non-autistic people filmed during 4 conditions (joke, waiting, telling story, telling compliments) Non-autistic participants better able to correctly identify condition for other non-autistics (in all except ‘joke’ condition) Not because autistic participants reacting “less expressively” In a separate study, rated just as “expressive” as non-autistic people in all conditions except “compliments”

Answer 252

Acknowledging biases and impacts on autistic people Traditional ToM deficit account has been accused of dehumanizing autistic individuals Perspectives of autistic people rarely taken into consideration! (Jaswal & Akhtar, 2018) Acknowledging different expressions of social behaviour Neurotypical people fail to read minds of autistic people (Sheppard et al. 2016) Different ways of viewing the world leading to breakdown in understanding Acknowledging the impact these perceptions can have on development Clinical practice! Parent-child interactions! Self-esteem and well-being!

developmental psychology Flashcards

(282 cards)