Comprehension Flashcards
(215 cards)
1
Q
purine
A
type of base with double rings. A, G
2
Q
golgi apparatus
A
composed of flattened sacs (cisternae) and membrane enclosed vesicles. vesicles with protein are budded off the ER and are fused here. proteins are modified further (like adding carbs/sugars to them). like the post office. proteins are received, modified, sent off. three regions. cis, trans and medial
3
Q
the stuff in between the nucleus/nucloid and cell membrane. “the rest of the cell.” includes cytosol and organelles
A
cytoplasm
4
Q
a starter strand to begin DNA replication. complementary to DNA template. short sequence and temporary. provides 3’ end to add nucleotides to
A
RNA primer
5
Q
granum
A
stacks of thylakoid
5
Q
new strand of DNA made in the direction of the unzipping (towards the fork)
A
leading strand
5
Q
males (XY) are this, only one copy of the X chromosome
A
hemizygous
6
Q
pre-replication complex
A
DNA replication starts by binding this large protein complex to a specific site (ori) on DNA molecule. this complex includes DNA polymerase
6
Q
pyrimidines
A
type of base with single rings. C, T, U
6
Q
epistasis
A
the phenotypic expression of one gene is influenced by another gene
7
Q
enzyme
A
biological catalysts. all are proteins. always end in “-ase”. work by inducing strain or changing orientation of substrate or adding a chemical group
7
Q
type of base with single rings. C, T, U
A
pyrimidines
8
Q
helps in facilitated diffusion. a hole/pore w/ hydrophillic tunnel going thru hydrophobic membrane. it moves charged ions through membrane. it is an electrochemical gradient. it has 3 types of gates: voltage gated channels, ligand gated channels and mechanially gated channels
A
ion channel proteins
8
Q
type of secondary active transport. moves 2 molecules in opposite direction. e.g. as Na moves down concentration gradient, Ca moves agains concentration gradient
A
antiporter
9
Q
the liquid part of the cell, any water and solids dissolved in it (like ions and salts)
A
cytosol
9
Q
generic term for different organelles in plant and algae cells. e.g. chloroplast, chromoplast and leukoplast
A
plastid
10
Q
mitochondria
A
in plant and animal cells. harvests chemical energy of energy rich molecules (like glucose) in a form the cell can use (ATP). it has ribosomes, DNA and can divide independently. has 2 membranes (outer and inner). outer membrane is porous. inner membrane has folds (cristae) which increases surface area and increases capacity to make energy
10
Q
DNA ligase
A
enzyme that “sews” up the gaps in the lagging strand
10
Q
recombinant
A
offspring that look part paternal and part maternal, this means there was a crossing over event
10
Q
the phenotypic expression of one gene is influenced by another gene
A
epistasis
11
Q
holes in cell wall for cells to communicate
A
plasmodesmata
12
Q
in plant and animal cells. harvests chemical energy of energy rich molecules (like glucose) in a form the cell can use (ATP). it has ribosomes, DNA and can divide independently. has 2 membranes (outer and inner). outer membrane is porous. inner membrane has folds (cristae) which increases surface area and increases capacity to make energy
A
mitochondria
12
Q
osmosis
A
type of passive transport, simple diffusion for H2O. some people think it is small enough to get past hydrophobic region of membrane or hitchhikes with other ions or passes via water only channels called aquaporins
12
Q
covalent bond links together amino acids to form protein. condensation reactions links amino group of the new amino acid chain with the carboxyl group of the amino acid at the end of the chain
A
peptide bonds
12
family tree. geneticists use these to determine if a rare disease allele is dominant or recessive. this c an determine how a disorder runs through a family and what kind of disorder it is.
pedigree
14
proteins that are not embedded in the bilayer and lack a hydrophobic region. they have polar regions
peripheral membrane proteins
15
nucleolus
region where ribosomes begin to assemble before they are exported. this is inside the nucleus
15
a parameter that describes the effects of the environment on the genotype. the proportion of individuals with a certain genotype that show the phenotype (100% in Huntington's disease, if you have a copy you will get the disease)
penetrance
16
isotonic
equal amount of solutes as the other side
17
supports and maintains cell shape. holds organelles in position. gives a "track" to move organelles/particles around the cell. interacts with extracellular membrane to hold cell in place. connects things inside and outside of cell. 3 parts: microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules
cytoskeleton
17
DNA functions
store genetic info, replicate precisely, being susceptible to mutations, express the coded information at the phenotype
17
most substances have this kind of receptor bc signal can't cross the membrane. they are usually large and polar. signal binds to extracellular site, there is a shape change and cell response. 3 types: ion channel receptors, protein kinase receptor, G-protein linked receptor
membrane receptor
17
increase the number of possible phenotypes and may show a hierarchy of dominance (rabbit example). any one individual only has two
multiple alleles
18
basic unit in nucleic acids (RNA and DNA). composed of pentose sugar, a phosphate group and nitrogenous base
nucleotide
19
RNA primer
a starter strand to begin DNA replication. complementary to DNA template. short sequence and temporary. provides 3' end to add nucleotides to
19
sodium-potassium pump
this is a type of primary transport and a transmembrane protein. for every ATP 3 Na is pumped out of cell and 2 K is pumped into the cell.
19
protein kinase receptors
type of membrane receptor, change shape when ligand bonds to it. this shape change exposes it's active site which adds phosphates (with neg charge) to other proteins and turns enzymes on/off, adds phosphate group to a specific target
20
anchored membrane protein
type of integral membrane protein. it is anchored in place in the membrane with a hydrophobic lipid tail or the cytoskeleton
22
enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of the complementary strand of DNA. it is very fast. new nucleotides form base pairs with template strands that are linked together by phosphodeister bonds. new DNA strand is made 5' to 3'. it adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the primer. it also replaces RNA primer with DNA
DNA polymerase
23
autosomal recessive disorder / recessive inheritance
person has to have two bad copies (homozygous recessive) of the gene to have this. people usually have two unaffected parents. mating between relatives increases chances of producing a child with homozygous recessive disorder compared to mating with the general public because genes run through families. e.g. Sickle cell disease
24
proteins
these are macromolecules. polymers made out of amino acids. They govern chemical reactions in cells and form organism’s structure. Functions include enzymes, receptor, transport and genetic regulation
25
temporary molecule that can be modified, has OH instead of H so it can be more reactive. single stranded. can fold according to base pairs. info from DNA is transmitted through these to specifcy amino acid sequences of protein
RNA
26
quantitative traits
traits conferred by multiple genes. called polygenic inheritance. they can be measured, it is gradual. e.g. eye color, skin color
27
this is a type of primary transport and a transmembrane protein. for every ATP 3 Na is pumped out of cell and 2 K is pumped into the cell.
sodium-potassium pump
29
mutation
rare, stable, inherited changes in genetic material (DNA) that get passed down. can cause a change in the phenotype
30
originates in Golgi and is a vesicle that buds off the Golgi. it contains digestive enzymes. where macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
primary lysosome
30
simple diffusion
type of passive transport. molecules move directly through the plasma membrane, O2 and CO2 do this
30
facilitated diffusion
type of passive transport. protein helps as a channel or carrier
31
less solute concentration than the other side
hypotonic
31
observable physical feature
character / trait
32
this disorder is in a gene on the X chromosome (which is larger than Y and has a lot of genes). this causes X-linked recessive phenotypes
sex-linked inheritance
33
gene
DNA sequence that makes specific proteins
34
antiporter
type of secondary active transport. moves 2 molecules in opposite direction. e.g. as Na moves down concentration gradient, Ca moves agains concentration gradient
34
type of membrane receptor. transfers signals outside to inside cell. ligand binds to this receptor, GDP changes to GTP, activates G protein inside cell, G protein travels down membrane and hits an effector protein. causes effect in the cell. this signal is amplified
G-protein linked receptors
35
law of segregation
Mendel's 1st law. two copies of a gene separate when an individual makes gametes. during meiosis, each gamete receives only one copy of each gene.
36
site where part of DNA unwinds to expose the bases. replication proceeds in 2 directions
replication fork
36
moves ions against their concentration gradient. gets energy from ions moving down their concentration gradient. no ATP required. 2 types (coupled transporters) are symporter and antiporter
secondary active transport
37
hypotonic
less solute concentration than the other side
38
phosphodiester bond
covalent bond that connects phosphate to 3' carbon (pentose sugar) to link nucleotides. formed from condensation reactions
38
An integral membrane protein that extends all the way through the phospholipid bilayer. it has hydrophilic side chains and allows subtances to move across the membrane
Transmembrane protein
39
cytoplasm
the stuff in between the nucleus/nucloid and cell membrane. "the rest of the cell." includes cytosol and organelles
40
stacks in chloroplast, part of photosynthesis takes place here to make ATP
thylakoids
42
ion channel proteins
helps in facilitated diffusion. a hole/pore w/ hydrophillic tunnel going thru hydrophobic membrane. it moves charged ions through membrane. it is an electrochemical gradient. it has 3 types of gates: voltage gated channels, ligand gated channels and mechanially gated channels
43
primary active transport
moves substances against the concentration gradient and requires ATP. energy source is ATP hydrolysis. 2 types are sodium-potassium pump and ABC transporter
44
an organelle that is a mature plastid that is the site of photosynthesis and contains chlorophyll (green pigment). has two membranes. inner membrane is thylakoid. includes granum and stroma
chloroplast
45
linkage analysis
how close are two genes on a chromosome? this can alter their patterns of inheritance. if they are further apart crossing over is more common, if they are closer together they are more tightly linked
46
in nuclear envelope, controls movement between nucleus and cytoplasm. allows RNA to leave nucleus to enter cytoplasms to get to the ribosomes
nuclear pores
48
nuclear pores
in nuclear envelope, controls movement between nucleus and cytoplasm. allows RNA to leave nucleus to enter cytoplasms to get to the ribosomes
49
carrier protein
helps in faciliated diffusion. this speeds up the rate of diffusion for one kind of molecule. specific substances bind to it which changes the proteins shape so those same substances can pass through. when enough substrate is binding to it it reaches max velocity
50
Expressivity
a parameter that describes the effects of the environment on the genotype. the degree to which genotype is expressed in an individual
51
DNA polymerase
enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of the complementary strand of DNA. it is very fast. new nucleotides form base pairs with template strands that are linked together by phosphodeister bonds. new DNA strand is made 5' to 3'. it adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the primer. it also replaces RNA primer with DNA
51
G-protein linked receptors
type of membrane receptor. transfers signals outside to inside cell. ligand binds to this receptor, GDP changes to GTP, activates G protein inside cell, G protein travels down membrane and hits an effector protein. causes effect in the cell. this signal is amplified
53
endoplasmic reticulum
a bunch of membranes that give it a large surface area. two types of it, rough (with ribosomes) and smooth
55
microtubules
part of cytoskeleton with largest diameter. form a rigid skeleton and are the track the guides things around in the cell. they are hollow. made up dimers of the protein tubulin. they have some dynamic instability. important in cilia and flagella. in a 9 + 2 arrangement in cilia and flagella. 9 doublets surrounding 2 singlets.
55
plastid
generic term for different organelles in plant and algae cells. e.g. chloroplast, chromoplast and leukoplast
56
no ribosomes on the membrane so it is smooth. drugs and pesticides can be chemically modified here. glycogen is broken down and calcium is stored here and it is where lipids and steroids are synthesized
smooth ER
57
part of cytoskeleton with largest diameter. form a rigid skeleton and are the track the guides things around in the cell. they are hollow. made up dimers of the protein tubulin. they have some dynamic instability. important in cilia and flagella. in a 9 + 2 arrangement in cilia and flagella. 9 doublets surrounding 2 singlets.
microtubules
57
true-breeding individual
two copies of the homozygous allele (either dominant or recessive), it can only pass on 1 trait
58
you get one copy of DNA carried on a chromosome from each parent. each chromosome remains distinct and intact (doesn't blend). you get 2 genes for each trait, one from each parent. Mendel's theory
particulate theory of inheritance
59
fluids surrounding thylakoids, carbon is synthesized into carbs here
stroma
60
cytosol
the liquid part of the cell, any water and solids dissolved in it (like ions and salts)
62
cytoskeleton
supports and maintains cell shape. holds organelles in position. gives a "track" to move organelles/particles around the cell. interacts with extracellular membrane to hold cell in place. connects things inside and outside of cell. 3 parts: microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules
63
the disease allele is dominant, everyone with the disease phenotype has an affected parent. e.g. Huntington's disease
autosomal dominant disorder / dominant inheritance
65
type of passive transport, simple diffusion for H2O. some people think it is small enough to get past hydrophobic region of membrane or hitchhikes with other ions or passes via water only channels called aquaporins
osmosis
66
stroma
fluids surrounding thylakoids, carbon is synthesized into carbs here
67
type of membrane receptor, change shape when ligand bonds to it. this shape change exposes it's active site which adds phosphates (with neg charge) to other proteins and turns enzymes on/off, adds phosphate group to a specific target
protein kinase receptors
68
type of primary active transport. a transmembrane protein that pumps compounds (like drugs/toxins) out of the cell
ABC transporter
69
longer polymers of peptides with a unique sequence of amino acids. another word for protein
polypeptides
70
character / trait
observable physical feature
72
microfilaments
part of cytoskeleton. made of protein actin, help cell or part of cell move. determine cell shape. can get longer (polymers) and shorter (monomers) depending on what is needed
73
part of cytoskeleton. made of protein actin, help cell or part of cell move. determine cell shape. can get longer (polymers) and shorter (monomers) depending on what is needed
microfilaments
74
cell wall
the extracellular structure in plants. made of cellulose. supports cell (limits volume by staying rigid), barrier to infection and continues forming in growth and development
76
rare, stable, inherited changes in genetic material (DNA) that get passed down. can cause a change in the phenotype
mutation
77
law of independent assortment
Mendel's 2nd law. copies of different genes on different chromosomes assort independently during gamete formation
79
codominance
two alleles of a gene produce phenotypes that are both present in a heterozygote at the same time. e.g. blood type AB has both A and B oligosaccharide sugars
79
store genetic info, replicate precisely, being susceptible to mutations, express the coded information at the phenotype
DNA functions
81
dNTP (deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates)
building blocks of DNA. composed of 3 phosphate groups, pentose sugar and nitrogenous base. 2 phosphates from this are released to provide energy. 3rd phosphate bonds to the 3' end of the DNA chain via a phosphodeister bond
83
these are macromolecules. polymers made out of amino acids. They govern chemical reactions in cells and form organism’s structure. Functions include enzymes, receptor, transport and genetic regulation
proteins
85
all cells are surrounded by this. it's a phospholipid bilayer with proteins. it is a selectively permeable barrier (permits some substances to enter/leave cell while preventing others), communicates and binds with adjacent cells. hydrophobic interior formed by tails of phospholipids
cell membrane
86
particulate theory of inheritance
you get one copy of DNA carried on a chromosome from each parent. each chromosome remains distinct and intact (doesn't blend). you get 2 genes for each trait, one from each parent. Mendel's theory
87
penetrance
a parameter that describes the effects of the environment on the genotype. the proportion of individuals with a certain genotype that show the phenotype (100% in Huntington's disease, if you have a copy you will get the disease)
88
hybrid vigor
when you cross two different true-breeding homozygotes and offspring is stronger, larger, better. e.g. happens with corn
90
ribosomes
the is site of protein synthesis (in prokaryotes and eukaryotes because they are not membrane bound). has one large and one small subunits that have rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and protein in it. this translates mRNA into an amino acid sequenceto form proteins. they are free in cytoplasm, attached to ER or inside mitochondria/chloroplast
91
helps in faciliated diffusion. this speeds up the rate of diffusion for one kind of molecule. specific substances bind to it which changes the proteins shape so those same substances can pass through. when enough substrate is binding to it it reaches max velocity
carrier protein
92
includes nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi and lysosomes. has vesicles that shuttle substances (likeproteins) between all of these organelles
endomembrane system
93
hypertonic
more solutes than the other side
94
a type of ion channel and ion channel receptor. it opens when a specific ligand/chemcal binds to it and allows ions to pass through (ligand doesn't pass through). it makes a hydrophillic passage so ions can pass through. this can be on inside or outside of the cell. it is also a type of membrane receptor
ligand gated channel
95
type of secondary active transport. moves 2 molecules in the same direction. e.g. as Na moves down concentration gradient then glucose "hitchhikes" with it (against its concentration gradient)
symporter
96
two alleles of a gene produce phenotypes that are both present in a heterozygote at the same time. e.g. blood type AB has both A and B oligosaccharide sugars
codominance
97
type of passive transport. protein helps as a channel or carrier
facilitated diffusion
99
different forms of genes (such as round or wrinkled in seeds). each chromosome has one of these. we have 2 copies of every chromosomes so we have 2 of these for each gene. one from mom and one from dad
allele
101
DNA must be ___ to be genetic material
present in cell nucleus and in chromosomes, double in the cell cycle, twice as abundant in diploid, and the same pattern of transmission as the genetic information
101
sex-linked inheritance
this disorder is in a gene on the X chromosome (which is larger than Y and has a lot of genes). this causes X-linked recessive phenotypes
102
enzyme that "sews" up the gaps in the lagging strand
DNA ligase
103
nucleoid
the region in the cell where DNA is located in prokaryotes
104
Mendel's 1st law. two copies of a gene separate when an individual makes gametes. during meiosis, each gamete receives only one copy of each gene.
law of segregation
105
a bunch of membranes that give it a large surface area. two types of it, rough (with ribosomes) and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
106
polymers of nucleotides that store, transmt and express hereditary/genetic info. two types: DNA and RNA
nucleic acids
107
peripheral membrane proteins
proteins that are not embedded in the bilayer and lack a hydrophobic region. they have polar regions
108
where a gene is located in a chromosome
locus, loci (pl.)
109
type of integral membrane protein. it is anchored in place in the membrane with a hydrophobic lipid tail or the cytoskeleton
anchored membrane protein
111
more solutes than the other side
hypertonic
112
Mendel's 2nd law. copies of different genes on different chromosomes assort independently during gamete formation
law of independent assortment
113
lagging strand
new strand of DNA. moves away from the fork. synthesis of this occurs in small, discontinuous stretches (called Okazaki fragments) until it runs into the previous fragment. needs primer for each fragment. has gaps that are "sewed up" by DNA ligase
114
chloroplast
an organelle that is a mature plastid that is the site of photosynthesis and contains chlorophyll (green pigment). has two membranes. inner membrane is thylakoid. includes granum and stroma
115
allele
different forms of genes (such as round or wrinkled in seeds). each chromosome has one of these. we have 2 copies of every chromosomes so we have 2 of these for each gene. one from mom and one from dad
115
incomplete dominane
an heterozygote with an intermediate (blended) phenotype, the offspring has a blended phenotype of its parents
117
nucleotide
basic unit in nucleic acids (RNA and DNA). composed of pentose sugar, a phosphate group and nitrogenous base
118
when you cross two different true-breeding homozygotes and offspring is stronger, larger, better. e.g. happens with corn
hybrid vigor
119
autosomal dominant disorder / dominant inheritance
the disease allele is dominant, everyone with the disease phenotype has an affected parent. e.g. Huntington's disease
120
leading strand
new strand of DNA made in the direction of the unzipping (towards the fork)
120
multiple alleles
increase the number of possible phenotypes and may show a hierarchy of dominance (rabbit example). any one individual only has two
122
part of cytoskeleton. very stable, tough, don't fall apart. anchor cell structure in place.
intermediate filaments
123
X-linked recessive inheritance
phenotypes that appear much more often in males because women are XX and one X can "mask" the other X, while XY is hemizygous
124
pedigree
family tree. geneticists use these to determine if a rare disease allele is dominant or recessive. this c an determine how a disorder runs through a family and what kind of disorder it is.
126
locus, loci (pl.)
where a gene is located in a chromosome
127
region where ribosomes begin to assemble before they are exported. this is inside the nucleus
nucleolus
128
covalent bond that connects phosphate to 3' carbon (pentose sugar) to link nucleotides. formed from condensation reactions
phosphodiester bond
129
polypeptides
longer polymers of peptides with a unique sequence of amino acids. another word for protein
130
DNA replication starts by binding this large protein complex to a specific site (ori) on DNA molecule. this complex includes DNA polymerase
pre-replication complex
131
when phagosome fuses with primary lysosome. hydrolysis occurs here which provides monomers for other cellular processes (recycled) and the undigested particles are released outside of the cell.
secondary lysosome
132
biological catalysts. all are proteins. always end in "-ase". work by inducing strain or changing orientation of substrate or adding a chemical group
enzyme
133
type of base with double rings. A, G
purine
134
DNA sequence that makes specific proteins
gene
135
the region in the cell where DNA is located in prokaryotes
nucleoid
136
equal amount of solutes as the other side
isotonic
137
traits conferred by multiple genes. called polygenic inheritance. they can be measured, it is gradual. e.g. eye color, skin color
quantitative traits
139
building blocks of DNA. composed of 3 phosphate groups, pentose sugar and nitrogenous base. 2 phosphates from this are released to provide energy. 3rd phosphate bonds to the 3' end of the DNA chain via a phosphodeister bond
dNTP (deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates)
140
RNA
temporary molecule that can be modified, has OH instead of H so it can be more reactive. single stranded. can fold according to base pairs. info from DNA is transmitted through these to specifcy amino acid sequences of protein
141
ABC transporter
type of primary active transport. a transmembrane protein that pumps compounds (like drugs/toxins) out of the cell
142
how close are two genes on a chromosome? this can alter their patterns of inheritance. if they are further apart crossing over is more common, if they are closer together they are more tightly linked
linkage analysis
144
the is site of protein synthesis (in prokaryotes and eukaryotes because they are not membrane bound). has one large and one small subunits that have rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and protein in it. this translates mRNA into an amino acid sequenceto form proteins. they are free in cytoplasm, attached to ER or inside mitochondria/chloroplast
ribosomes
145
type of passive transport. molecules move directly through the plasma membrane, O2 and CO2 do this
simple diffusion
147
offspring that look part paternal and part maternal, this means there was a crossing over event
recombinant
148
has ribosomes attached to it. all secreted proteins pass through this. new proteins enter the interior (called lumen) to be chemically modified and tagged for delivery. proteins are transported to other locations in the cell.
rough ER
149
ligand gated channel
a type of ion channel and ion channel receptor. it opens when a specific ligand/chemcal binds to it and allows ions to pass through (ligand doesn't pass through). it makes a hydrophillic passage so ions can pass through. this can be on inside or outside of the cell. it is also a type of membrane receptor
151
moves substances against the concentration gradient and requires ATP. energy source is ATP hydrolysis. 2 types are sodium-potassium pump and ABC transporter
primary active transport
152
crossing parental varieties with one trait that is different crossing two homozygous parents on one trait to get a heterozygous F1. this is a 2x2 Punnett square
monohybrids
153
polymer of nucleotides. stores and transmits genetic info. double stranded. strands run in opposite directions (antiparallel) and form a ladder that twists into a double helix. lacks OH group so it is more stable. one nucleotide is pentose sugar(deoxyribose), nitogenous base (A, T, G, C) and phosphate. phosphate and sugar are stable
DNA
155
ligand
a chemical that binds to receptors to change their shape and this change in shape initiates cellular response. this binding is reversible
157
membrane receptor
most substances have this kind of receptor bc signal can't cross the membrane. they are usually large and polar. signal binds to extracellular site, there is a shape change and cell response. 3 types: ion channel receptors, protein kinase receptor, G-protein linked receptor
158
smooth ER
no ribosomes on the membrane so it is smooth. drugs and pesticides can be chemically modified here. glycogen is broken down and calcium is stored here and it is where lipids and steroids are synthesized
159
secondary active transport
moves ions against their concentration gradient. gets energy from ions moving down their concentration gradient. no ATP required. 2 types (coupled transporters) are symporter and antiporter
161
symporter
type of secondary active transport. moves 2 molecules in the same direction. e.g. as Na moves down concentration gradient then glucose "hitchhikes" with it (against its concentration gradient)
163
a chemical that binds to receptors to change their shape and this change in shape initiates cellular response. this binding is reversible
ligand
165
vacuoles
usually in plant cells. takes up majority of space in cell and fills up with water. stores wastes and toxic material which can deter animals from eating the plants (contributing to its defense/survival). pressure of water inside it helps support cell's structure. contributes to reproduction (petal pigments are contained here which attracts animals for pollination). contributes in catabolism (hydrolyzing seed proteins into monomers)
166
rough ER
has ribosomes attached to it. all secreted proteins pass through this. new proteins enter the interior (called lumen) to be chemically modified and tagged for delivery. proteins are transported to other locations in the cell.
167
intermediate filaments
part of cytoskeleton. very stable, tough, don't fall apart. anchor cell structure in place.
168
two copies of the homozygous allele (either dominant or recessive), it can only pass on 1 trait
true-breeding individual
169
composed of flattened sacs (cisternae) and membrane enclosed vesicles. vesicles with protein are budded off the ER and are fused here. proteins are modified further (like adding carbs/sugars to them). like the post office. proteins are received, modified, sent off. three regions. cis, trans and medial
golgi apparatus
170
phenotypes that appear much more often in males because women are XX and one X can "mask" the other X, while XY is hemizygous
X-linked recessive inheritance
172
replication fork
site where part of DNA unwinds to expose the bases. replication proceeds in 2 directions
173
secondary lysosome
when phagosome fuses with primary lysosome. hydrolysis occurs here which provides monomers for other cellular processes (recycled) and the undigested particles are released outside of the cell.
174
nuclear envelope
surrounds nucleus
175
primary lysosome
originates in Golgi and is a vesicle that buds off the Golgi. it contains digestive enzymes. where macromolecules are hydrolyzed into monomers
176
a parameter that describes the effects of the environment on the genotype. the degree to which genotype is expressed in an individual
Expressivity
177
nucleic acids
polymers of nucleotides that store, transmt and express hereditary/genetic info. two types: DNA and RNA
178
endomembrane system
includes nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi and lysosomes. has vesicles that shuttle substances (likeproteins) between all of these organelles
179
monohybrids
crossing parental varieties with one trait that is different crossing two homozygous parents on one trait to get a heterozygous F1. this is a 2x2 Punnett square
180
surrounds nucleus
nuclear envelope
181
thylakoids
stacks in chloroplast, part of photosynthesis takes place here to make ATP
182
person has to have two bad copies (homozygous recessive) of the gene to have this. people usually have two unaffected parents. mating between relatives increases chances of producing a child with homozygous recessive disorder compared to mating with the general public because genes run through families. e.g. Sickle cell disease
autosomal recessive disorder / recessive inheritance
183
Transmembrane protein
An integral membrane protein that extends all the way through the phospholipid bilayer. it has hydrophilic side chains and allows subtances to move across the membrane
184
usually in plant cells. takes up majority of space in cell and fills up with water. stores wastes and toxic material which can deter animals from eating the plants (contributing to its defense/survival). pressure of water inside it helps support cell's structure. contributes to reproduction (petal pigments are contained here which attracts animals for pollination). contributes in catabolism (hydrolyzing seed proteins into monomers)
vacuoles
185
plasmodesmata
holes in cell wall for cells to communicate
186
an heterozygote with an intermediate (blended) phenotype, the offspring has a blended phenotype of its parents
incomplete dominane
187
hemizygous
males (XY) are this, only one copy of the X chromosome
188
stacks of thylakoid
granum
189
present in cell nucleus and in chromosomes, double in the cell cycle, twice as abundant in diploid, and the same pattern of transmission as the genetic information
DNA must be ___ to be genetic material
190
new strand of DNA. moves away from the fork. synthesis of this occurs in small, discontinuous stretches (called Okazaki fragments) until it runs into the previous fragment. needs primer for each fragment. has gaps that are "sewed up" by DNA ligase
lagging strand
191
DNA
polymer of nucleotides. stores and transmits genetic info. double stranded. strands run in opposite directions (antiparallel) and form a ladder that twists into a double helix. lacks OH group so it is more stable. one nucleotide is pentose sugar(deoxyribose), nitogenous base (A, T, G, C) and phosphate. phosphate and sugar are stable
192
cell membrane
all cells are surrounded by this. it's a phospholipid bilayer with proteins. it is a selectively permeable barrier (permits some substances to enter/leave cell while preventing others), communicates and binds with adjacent cells. hydrophobic interior formed by tails of phospholipids
193
peptide bonds
covalent bond links together amino acids to form protein. condensation reactions links amino group of the new amino acid chain with the carboxyl group of the amino acid at the end of the chain
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the extracellular structure in plants. made of cellulose. supports cell (limits volume by staying rigid), barrier to infection and continues forming in growth and development
cell wall
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