Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Choroid Plexus

A

-produces CSF
-web of capillaries
-blood filtered 3x

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2
Q

Lateral Ventricles

A

-above thalamus
-2
-connected to 3rd ventricle by inter-ventricular foramina (Monro)

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3
Q

3rd Ventricle

A

-surrounded by diencephalon
-connected to 4th ventricle via cerebral aqueduct (sylvius)

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4
Q

4th Ventricle

A

-behind pons/medulla
-connects to central canal of SC
-drains into subarachnoid space via foramina of Luschka and midline foramen of Magendie

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5
Q

Falx Cerebri

A

-dense projections in inner layer of dura
-separates 2 hemispheres

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6
Q

Tentorium Cerebelli

A

-dense projections in inner layer of dura
-separate cerebellum from cerebrum

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7
Q

Homunculus Motor Cortex

A

-Precentral Gyrus

Medial: Genitals, toes, ankle, knee

Superomedial: trunk, hip, shoulder, elbow, wrist, hand

Superolateral: Hand (fingers pinky-thumb), face

Lateral: Face (top to bottom), jaw (talking), tongue (swallowing)

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8
Q

Homunculus Sensory Cortex

A

-Postcentral gyrus

Medial: Genitals, toes, ankle, knee

Superomedial: trunk, hip, shoulder, head, arm

Superolateral: Hand (fingers pinky-thumb), elbow, forearm, wrist

Lateral: Face (top to bottom), jaw, tongue, gums, pharynx

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9
Q

Vertebrobasilar A.

A

-posterior circulation of brain

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10
Q

Posterior Inferior Cerebellar A. (Think of location)

A

-bottom, posterior cerebellum

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11
Q

Anterior Inferior Cerebellar A.

A

-front and bottom cerebellum

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12
Q

Superior Cerebellar A.

A

-top of cerebellum
-under CN III

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13
Q

Posterior Cerebral A.

A

-posterior cerebrum
-occipital lobe
-Posterior, medial, inferior temporal lobe
-above CN III

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14
Q

Internal Carotid A.

A

-anterior circulation of brain

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15
Q

Ophthalmic A.

A

eyes

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16
Q

Posterior Communicating A.

A

-connects PCerebralA and ICA
-connects 1 side of ant to post

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17
Q

Anterior Cerebral A.

A

-medial cerebral hemisphere to parietal lobe
-from ICA

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18
Q

Anterior Communicating A.

A

-between ant. cerebral A.

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19
Q

Middle Cerebral A.

A

-lateral cerebral hemisphere

EXCECPT:
-superior and front parietal
-inferior temporal

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20
Q

Vertebral A. Stroke

A

-prone to shear forces from AA joint from abrupt cervical rotation
-gait issues, ataxia, HA

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21
Q

Basilar A. Stroke

A

-complete blockage causes death
-partial: tetraplegia, numbness, CN damage, locked in syndrome (only movements)

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22
Q

Anterior Cerebral A. Stroke

A

-hemiparesis loss to contra side
-personality changes
-lower limb issues

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23
Q

Middle Cerebral A. Stroke

A

-hemiparesis loss to contra side
-face and upper limb issues

L side: aphasia
R side: spacial relationships, nonverbal communication

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24
Q

Posteror Cerebral A. Stroke

A

-midbrain issues (thalamic syndrome), eye movement issues, cortical blindness (brain cant comprehend vision)

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25
Pontine Arteries
-supplies pons
26
Torcula
-confluence of sinuses -drains straight sinus and sup. saggital sinus -drains to sigmoid
27
Cavernous SInus
-drains from blood supply of face and brain -drains to sigmoid
28
Superior and inferior Petrosal Sinus
-drains from cavernous sinus -drains to sigmoid
29
Frontal Lobe
Voluntary Movement, language, higher level function
30
Parietal Lobe
Sensory perception, sensory integration (5 senses)
31
Occipital Lobe
-visual perception
32
Temporal Lobe
-auditory processing, vestibular, memory formation
33
Post central gyrus
-Primary sensory cortex -proprioception -sensory input
34
Pre central gyrus
-primary motor cortex -voluntary movement of contralateral side
35
Central Sulcus
-boundary btwn motor/sensory and parietal/frontal lobes
36
Lateral Sulcus
-separates temporal from frontal and parietal lobes
37
Cerebellum
-coordinate movements
38
Pons
-unconscious processes -sleep, breathings
39
Medulla
-vital processing (breathing, BP, HR)
40
Mammillary Bodies
-recollective memory
41
Fusiform Gyrus
-high level vision -face perception, object recognition, reading
42
Inferior Olive
-learning and timing of movements and comparing them to intended movements
43
Pyramids and Decussation
-motor fibers that pass from brain to medulla oblongata -SC nerves cross
44
Uncus
-olfaction -emotions -forming new memories
45
Parahippocampal Gyrus
-spatial awareness -memory encoding
46
Midbrain
-vision, hearing, motor control, arousal, temperature regulation
47
Middle Cerebellar Peduncle
-connects cerebellum to pons -largest - contains afferent fibers
48
4th Ventricle
-protect brain -form central canal
49
Inferior Colliculus
-sound localization -pitch discrimination -integration of auditory information
50
Superior Colliculus
-visual (directing eye movements), auditory processing for orienting toward environment , auditory, and somatosensory spatial information integration
51
Substania Nigra
-production of dopamine -body movements -part of basal ganglia -on midbrain
52
Cerebral Peduncles
-refining fine motor movements conversion of proprioceptive information into balance and posture
53
Gracile Fasciculus
-main touch pathway -fine touch, vibrations, conscious proprioception -lower body to brain stem
54
Cuneate Fasciculus
-only in cervical -vibration and conscious perception and fine touch sensations from upper body
55
Gracile Nucleus
-medulla -dorsal column nuclei -fine touch sensation and proprioception of lower body
56
Cuneate Nucleus
-info from upper body -medulla
57
Inferior Olivary Nucleus
-coordinate signals from SC to cerebellum to regulate coordination
58
Periaqueductal Grey Matter
-modulation and propagation of pain
59
Cranial Nerve Locations
Midbrain: CN III-IV Pons: CN V-VIII Medulla: CN IX-XII
60
CN I Exit Foramina
Cribriform plate
61
CN II Exit Foramina
Optic canal
62
CN III & IV & VI Exit Foramina
Superior orbital fissure
63
CN V Exit Foramina
V1: superior orbital fissure V2: foramen rotundum V3: foramen ovale
64
CN VII & VIII Exit Foramina
Auditory canal
65
CN IX & X & XI Exit Foramina
Jugular foramen
66
CN XII Exit Foramina
Hypoglossal foramen
67
CN I
Olfactory (sensory) -smell (olfactory cortex: amygdala, parahippocampal gyrus, uncus, insula) -only sensory input that reaches cortex before thalamus 1) cover 1 nostril and smell different CI Anosmia: loss of smell -avulsion of olfactory fibers
68
CN II
Optic (sensory) -visual acuity (visual cortex: occipital lobe) Optic Nerve: from eyes Optic Chiasm: crossing Optic tract: to visual cortex 1) consensual contralateral light response (midbrain) 2) eye chart CI Homonymous Hemianopsia: damage in contralateral visual path results in ipsilateral 1/2 blindness
69
CN III
Oculomotor (motor) -eye and eyelid movement 1) eye movements except lateral and down/in 2) consensual ipsi light response 3) cover eye and pupillary constriction of contra CI External Strabismus: ipsilateral eye fixed in abd Ipsilateral ptosis: paralysis of upper eyelid Diplopia: double vision Mydriasis: Ipsilateral pupuil fully dilated
70
CN IV
Trochlear (Motor) -ipsilaterally eye movement (down and in) -only CN that exits dorsum of brainstem 1) H test CI: Cannot down and in -double vision -difficulty reading -head tilt to opposite side
71
CN V
Trigeminal (Both) V1: Opthalamic (sensory) V2: Maxillary (sensory) V3: mandibular (both) Motor: clench jaw and feel masseter and temporalis Sensory: check in forehead (ophamalic), checks (maxillary), and jaw (mandibular) CI: Corneal Blink Reflex -tactile sensation on cornea Trigeminal Neuralgia -sharp pain in face
72
CN VI
Abducens (motor) -lateral eye movements -H test CI: -double vision
73
CN VII
Facial (both) Motor: facial expression and salivary, stapedius of ear Sensory: tongue and pharynx Parasympathetic: salivary gland Special Sensation: ant 2/3rd of tongue Testing -Motor: 1) smile 2) frown 3) move eyebrows Sensory: -close eyes and place sweet/salt on anterior 2/3rds of tongue CI Bell’s Palsy
74
CN VIII
Vestibulocochlear (sensory) -hearing and vestibular Hearing: 1) rub fingers together 2) whisper word identification 3) Weber Test: tuning fork on head 4) Rhine Test: tuning fork on mastoid Vestibular: 1) touch nose then pt finger 2) turn head while looking at thumb CI: -vertigo, conductive or sensorineural deafness
75
CN IX
Glossopharyngeal (Both) -Motor: stylopharyngeus -Parasympathetic: parotid salivary gland, carotid a. -Sensory: 1/3 pos tongue, soft palate, ear, gag reflex Sensory: 1) sour/bitter taste on posterior 1/3 tongue Motor: 1) swallowing CI: decreased gag reflex and salivation
76
CN X
Vagus (both) Motor: larynx, pharynx, tongue, gag Parasympathetic: decrease HR, bronchoconstriction, digesiton Test 1) saw ah, uvula deviation to strong side 2)Swallowing CI: -hoarseness and swallowing difficulties, digestion issues
77
CN XI
Accessory (motor) -SCM and trap -Cell bodies in ventral horn of C1-C4 -travels through foramen magnum and exits jugular foramen Test 1) shoulder shrug 2) head turning
78
CN XII
Hypoglossal (motor) -tongue movements -swallowing -speaking 1) stick tongue out, deviates to weak side CI: -Dysphagia: difficulty swallowing -Dysarthria: poor control of speech muscles -LMN: flaccid tongue, deviates to weak -UMN: tongue deviates to strong side
79
Thalamus
-interprets sensation information and perceives it
80
Name of Pathways
-origin and site of termination for 2nd order neruon
81
Types of Somatosensory Pathways to Brain
Conscious Relay: -info about location and stimulus type to conscious awareness -discriminative sensations Divergent: -info to many locations in brainstem and cerebrum -conscious and non-conscious Non-Conscious Relay: -proprioceptive and other movement to cerebellum
82
Conscious Relay Pathways
-info about location and stimulus type to conscious awareness -discriminative sensations Crude Awareness: thalamus Detailed Awareness: somatosensory cortex Dorsal Column Anterolateral Column
83
Divergent Relay Pathways
-info to many locations in brainstem and cerebrum -conscious and non-conscious -medial/slow nociception -subconscious temperatue Spinomesencephalic, spinoreticular and spino-emotional tracts
84
Non-Conscious Relay Pathways
-proprioceptive and other movement to cerebellum Spinocerebellar Tracts
85
Descending Motor Fibers (2 types)
Pyramidal Tracts: cerebral cortex Extrapyramidal Tracts: Brainstem
86
Flexor-Extensor Rule
-MNs that innervate flexors are located posteriorly to MNs that innervate extensors
87
Proximal-Distal Rule
-MNs that innervate distal muscles are located laterally to MNs that innervate proximal muscles
88
Lateral Corticospinal Tracts (function)
-crossed at pyramidal decussation of medulla -fractionated movements -primary motor cortex -most CST fibers -descends in lat funiculus
89
Medial Corticospinal Tracts (function)
-uncrossed -postural movements -originates from premotor cortex -descends in venttral funiculus
90
Nonspecific Motor tracts
-facilitate activity of interneurons and MNs -activate during intense emotions Ceruleospinal and Raphespinal Tracts
91
Corticobrainstem Tracts
-voluntary control of many MM of head and neck -originate in cortex motor areas and reach CN nuclei in brainstem
92
Secondary Somatosensory Gyrus
-post to primary -processes info from primary and thalamus for stereognosis and sensory memory
93
Crista Gali
-separates olfactory bulbs
94
Cribiform Plate
Olfactory N.
95
Optic Canal
-optic N and ophthalmic A. -loss of vision
96
Foramen Rotundum
- Maxillary portion of Trigeminal -loss of function at maxilla
97
Foramen Ovale
-mandibular portion of trigeminal -loss of function at mandible
98
Formamen Spinosum
-middle meningeal artery -epidural hematoma
99
Foramen Lacerum
-filled with cartilage
100
Groove for Meningeal A.
-middle meningeal artery -epidural hematoma
101
Grove For Petrosal Sinus
-sup. petrosal sinus -improper drainage
102
Internal Auditory Meatus
-Facial N and Vestibularcochlear n -Hearing loss and facial paralysis
103
Jugular Foramen
-CN 9,10,11 -int. jugular vein -Loss of taste, uvula deviation, speech, neck muscles, bleeding out
104
Sulcus for Transverse Sinus
-transverse sinus -improper drainage
105
Hypoglossal Canal
-Hypoglossal nerve -weak tongue muscles
106
Foramen Magnum
-SC, vertebral arteries, Accessory N -Death, paralysis
107
Sulcus for Superior Saggital Sinus
-sup. saggital sinus -improper drainage
108
Superior Orbital Fissure
-Trigeminal N, opthalamic A, abducens N, occulomotor N, Trochlear N -Loss of vision, pupil reaction, eye movements
109
Stylomastoid Foramen
-facial N -Face paralysis and abnormal taste
110
Homonymous Hemianopsia
damage in contralateral visual path results in ipsilateral 1/2 blindness
111
External Strabismus
: ipsilateral eye fixed in abd
112
Ipsilateral ptosis:
paralysis of upper eyelid
113
Diplopia:
double vision
114
Mydriasis:
Ipsilateral pupuil fully dilated
115
Secondary Somatosensory Gyrus
-post to primary -processes info from primary and thalamus for stereognosis and sensory memory
116
Dorsal Column Medial Leminiscus
-Ascending tract -Light touch, proprioception, sterognosis 1st: Dorsal horn ganglion to FG or FC 2nd: Nucleus Gracilis or Cuneatus in Medulla CROSS with Internal Arcuate Fibers at Medial Leminiscus 3rd: Thalamus to PSSC
117
Anterolateral System
-ascending tract -crude touch Anterior: crude touch Lateral: Fast nociception and temp 1st: Dorsal root ganglion to DH CROSS at Anterior Commissure 2nd: Anterior commisure and travels up LST to thalamus 3rd: Thalamus to PSSC
118
Medial Nociception
-dull/slow pain -ascending, divergent pathway 1st: C fibers with free ending in DH CROSS 2nd: Spinomesencephalic: Sup. colliculi and periaqueductal grey Spinoreticular: Reticular Formation Spinoemotional: Cortex -reaches consciousness
119
Dorsal Spinocerebellar
-ascending, LE, uncrossed -Nonconsious postural movements -coordination and proprioception 1st: DRG to via FG Clark's Nucleus 2nd: Up DPT through Inferior Cerebellar Peduncle to Cerebellum
120
Ventral Spinocerebellar
-ascending, LE, crossed, bilateral -Nonconsious postural movements -coordination and proprioception 1st: Anterior Hron CROSS 2nd: Up VPT through Superior Cerebellar Peduncle CROSS to Cerebellum
121
Cuneocerebellar
-ascending, UE, uncrossed -Nonconsious postural movements -coordination and proprioception 1st: DRG to Nucleus Cuneatus 2nd: Up NC through Inferior Cerebellar Peduncle to Cerebellum
122
Rostrospinocerebellar
-ascending, UE, uncrossed -Nonconsious postural movements -coordination and proprioception 1st: DRG to Superior Cerebellar Peduncles to cerebellum
123
Medial/Ventral Corticospinal Tract
-automatic trunk movements, uncrossed -pyramidal Premotor cortex > internal capsule > Cerebral Peduncle (midbrain)> FG> medial/anterior horn
124
Lateral Corticospinal Tract
-voluntary limb mmts -pyramidal Primary Motor Cortex> internal capsule> Cerebral peduncles (midbrain)>crosses at decussation of medulla>FC>lateral horn
125
Corticobulbar Tract
-facial movements -Pyramidal Primary motor cortex> cerebral peduncles> crosses a lot at CNs> exits cervical ventral horn
126
Reticulospinal Tract
-extrapyramidal -postural and gross movements (walking), extensors Reticular formation in Pons>FG>ventral horn
127
Vestibulospinal Tract
-extrapyramidal -postural and vestibular movements Medial: head and neck motions to maintain position Lateral: limb and trunk reactions to gravity Vestibular Nuclei in Pons and medulla>lateral column>ventral horn
128
Spinal Cord I Zone
-dorsal horn -marginal zone
129
Spinal Cord II Zone
-Dorsal horn -Substantia gelatinosa
130
Spinal Cord III Zone
-dorsal horn -Nucleus proprius
131
Spinal Cord IV Zone
-dorsal horn -Nucleus proprius
132
Spinal Cord V Zone
-Dorsal horn
133
Spinal Cord VI Zone
-dorsal horn
134
Spinal Cord VII Zone
-intermediate zone -Clark's nucleus
135
Spinal Cord VIII Zone
-ventral horn -commissural nucleus
136
Spinal Cord IX Zone
-ventral horn -motor nuclei
137
Spinal Cord X Zone
-grey matter -Grisea centralis
138
Glia Cells
-non-neuronal cells -supportive, homeostasis, regulation
139
Neuron function
Reception, integration, transmission, and transfer of information
140
Bipolar Neurons
-1 dendrite, cell body and 1 axon -sensory
141
Pseudounipolar Neurons
Dendrites, axon and cell body on side -motor
142
Multipolar Neurons
Multiple dendrites -interneurons -most common
143
Macroglia
-larger supporting cells -Astrocytes -Oligodendrocytes -Schwann Cells
144
Microglia
-immune for CNS -phagocytes
145
Astrocytes
-macroglia cells in CNS -support, signal, nutrtients
146
Oligodendrocytes
-macroglia cells in CNS -create myelin
147
Schwann Cell
-PNS macroglia -support PNS and make myelin -does all the job
148
Local Potential
-small, graded -occurs in receptor or synapse -spreads passively
149
Action potential
Large "all or none" -depolarizing
150
Resting Membrane Potential
-70mV
151
Ion Cell Distribution at Rest
More Na+ outside, more K+ inside -Extracellular positive charge outside -Intracellular negative charge inside -more permeable to K+M
152
Movement of K+ during AP
-diffuses down concentration gradient and towards negative charges -chemical gradient force out, electrical gradient force in 2K+/3Na+
153
4 Membrane Ion channels
Leak (non-gated): small amount leak, K+ Modality-gated: Sensory neurons only; mechanical, temp or chemicals Ligand-gated: opens when stimulated by neurotransmitters Voltage-gated: opens when reaction; Ca+
154
Movement of Na+ during AP
-moves through leaky channels and then voltage gated negative charges 2K+/3Na+
155
Spatial Summation
I.....I......I......I
156
Temporal Summation
AP combine to form a large AP. -Build up of multiple excitatory waves merging
157
Depolarization
-voltage gated channels release Na+ into cell - polarity becomes positive
158
Repolarization
-Na+ channels close, K+ voltage channels open and release to the outside of the cell
159
Hyperpolarization
K+ gates remain open and cause hypo -90mV
160
Absolute Refractory Period
completely unresponsive to stimuli -Na+ has not reset yet
161
Relative Refractory Period
May respond to higher stimuli -Most Na+ resets
162
Factors Influencing AP
-diameter of axon, larger=faster -myelin, more=faster -temperature, warm=faster
163
Nodes of Ranvier
-site of saltatory conduction -location of AP generation and depolarization -high density of voltage gated ion channels
164
Conduction Speeds of fibers
large myelinated: PNS sensory and motor Thin unmeylinated: -short axons in grey matter in CNS -visceral ANS axons -pain fibers
165
Muscle Cell AP vs neuron
-90mV RMP -AP 1-5msec -18x slower than neuron
166
Presynaptic Terminal
-neuron conducting impulse toward synapse -feet -release neurotransmitters/neuromodulators
167
Postsynaptic terminal
-dendrite or cell body receiving neurotransmitter
168
Axosomatic Synapse
-synapse that binds to cell body of another nerve -local membrane potential
169
Axoaxonic Synapse
-synapse that binds to axon of another nerve -1st neuron activates second -presynaptic effects
170
Axodendritic
-synapse that binds to dendrite of another nerve -local membrane potential
171
Steps of Synaptic Transmission
1. AP comes to presynaptic terminal 2. Presynaptic membrane depolarizes and releases Ca+ 3. Ca+ causes vessicles to exocytose neurotransmitters 4. Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptor 5. Postsynaptic receptor opens ion channel or triggers intracellular messengers
172
Excitatory Postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
-local depolarization with Na+ or Ca+ into neuron -facilitates AP generation -common throughout CNS and PNS
173
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)
-local hyperpolarization with K+ out of neuron
174
Presynaptic Facilitation
-1st presynaptic neuron (Axoaxonic) releases neurotransmitters that attaches to 2nd neurotransmitter (axosomatic) and slightly depolarizes it to releases Ca+
175
Presynaptic Inhibition
-1st presynaptic neuron (axoaxonic) causes slight hyperpolarization to decreased Ca+ released from 2nd neuron (axosomatic)
176
Neurotransmitters
-fast -released from synapse -EPSP and IPSP -ms to mins
177
Neuromodulators
-extracellular space -alter gene expression, open iono channels, change metabolism, affects many neurons -mins to days
178
Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
-fast response -aka ionotropic receptor -some excitatory and inhibitory -inactivate due to lack of neurotransmitter and resorption
179
Guanine Nucleotide Binding Protein Activation of Ion Channels
-alters electrical excitability or neurons -Neurotransmitter being to G protein and alter the shape -Internal subunit breaks away and binds to membrane ion channel to change shape and open -slower than ligand -Mood disorders, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's
180
Agonist
-drugs the bind to receptors and copy actions of neurotransmitter
181
Antagonists
-drugs that block postsynaptic neurotransmitter -drugs that inhibit release of neurotransmitter in presynaptic neurons
182
Acetylcholine (Ach)
-Neurotransmitter produced in basal forebrain above eyes and midbrain (at top of brainstem) -Skeletal Muscles: Ach for neuromuscular junctions for muscle contraction. Blocking: causes weakness, fatigue, paralysis -Autonomic NS: slows HR, constricts pupils -Brain: Arousal, pleasure, cognitive function, movement and attention. Pleasure seeking behaviors and alzheimers
183
Glutamate
-amino acid principal fast neurotransmitter of CNS -Neural changes w/ learning and development (neuroplasticity) Excessive: -excitotoxiciity and neuron death -seizures Associated with -chronic pain, Parkinson's, schizophrenia, neuron death, stroke
184
GABA
-Glycine and y-aminobutyric acid -animo acid primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that prevent excessive neural activities in CNS (downers) Glycine: inhibits postsynaptic in brainstem and SC Low Levels: -seizure, involuntary muscle contractions, anxiety
185
Huntington's Disease
-causes loss of neurons that use GABA -causes jerky, involuntary movements and cognitive decline
186
Dopamine
-amine neurotransmitter produced in substantia nigra of the brain -affects motor function, cognition, and behavior, reward seeking behaviors (good for eating, bad for addiction) -2nd messenger systems Abnormalities seen in: -Parkinson's: not enough dopamine; bradykinesia, treat with precursor -Schizophrenia: signalling pathways, treat with drugs that prevent binding Excessive: -drug abuse by preventing reuptake of presynaptic terminals
187
Norepinephrine
-amine neurotransmitter produced in brainstem, hypothalamus, and thalamus -released by neurons of ANS and adrenal glands -fight or flight Excessive: -fear, panic, PTSD -beta blockers to treat Low: -sleeping -depression
188
Serotonin
-amine neurotransmitter involved with mood, pain, arousal, and motor acitivities High -alert and during REM Low -depression
189
Opioid Peptides
-endogenous: endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins -produced in NS and bind to receptors for opium -receptors in SC, hypothalamus, brainstem to inhibit pain
190
Substance P
-peptide that stimulates nerves at injury site Neurotransmitter: acts on CNS to cary info to brain Neuromodulator: -pain syndromes -hypothalamus and cerebral cortex during long duration excitation -modulate immune activity during stress
191
Ways to Restrict of # Receptors
-internalize receptor -inactivate receptor
192
Increase of # receptors
-infrequent activate -low levels of neurotransmitters
193
Lamber-Eaton Syndrome
-antibodies damage Ca channels in presynaptic membrane -no Ach release -muscle weakness
194
Myasthenia Gravis
-antibodies damage receptors on muscle cells -Ach released but cannot bind -muscle fatigue -life threatening
195
Pre-Embryonic Stage
0-14 days -Inner cell mass of cells becomes embryonic disc -endoderm and ectoderm
196
Embryonic Stage
15dy- 8wks -3 layers
197
Ectoderm
-NS -epidermis
198
Mesoderm
-CS -Excretory sys -dermis -muscles -skeleton
199
Endoderm
-Respiratory sys -organs
200
Fetal Stage
8wks - Birth -myelination starts
201
Neural Tube Development
18-26 days -Neural groove done at 21d -closes at cervical 1st -Superior neuropore closes at 27d Inner layer -grey matter -dorsal horn: sensory -ventral horn: motor Outer layer -white matter
202
Somites
-appear in occiput first, the caudally Anteromedial: vertebrae and skull Posteromedial: muscles of myotome Later: dermis/dermatome
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Conus Medullaris
-end of SC -l1-l2
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Cauda Equina
-individual nerves extending at end of SC -starts at L1-L2
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Filum Terminale
-connection of meninges at end of SC
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SC Growth
-stops at 4-5 -vertebral column stops at 16-18y
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Grey and White Matter
SC: Grey: outside, unmyelinated White: inside, myelinated Brain: Grey: inside, unmeylinated, cell bodies White: outside, myelinated
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Brain Development
Hindbrain: brainstem (w/o midbrain), 4th ventricle Midbrain: cerebral aquaduct Forebrain Posterior: Diencephalon Anterior: telencephalon (cortex, white matter, lateral ventricles
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Abnormal Neck and reflexes
-Asymmetric tonic reflex -Symmetric tonic reflex -Tonic labyrinth reflex
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Neural Tube Defects
-Anencephaly: head does not develop -Chiari Malformation: foramen magnum contains part of brainstem -Spina Bifida -Tethered cord syndrome: filum terminale is stretched
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Geriatric Cognition
-decreases everywhere -long term memory and procedural are stable -retention of new info stable but needs more cues -visual recognition of objects are stable -decrease in vocabulary
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Atypical Cognition Aging
-mood changes -visual-spacial changes -memory changes -difficulty communicating
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Mild cognitive impairment
-do not interfere with ADLS (unlike dementia and Alzheimer's) -90% develop alzheimer's -gradual, opposite of learning
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Causes of Aging Changes
-25% of motor neurons die -myelin fragmented -less dendrite density, less neurotransmitters, less synapses -shrinkage
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3 Neuron Pathways
1st: sensory receptor to SC or BS 2nd: SC or BS to thalamus 3rd: Thalamus to cerebral cortex
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Stimulus
-when applied to a receptor, triggers graded membrane potential -determines type of receptors activated
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Receptor
-converts stimulus into AP -specialized and responds only to specific stimulus type and intensity
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Conduction
AP travels to CNS
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Translation
CNS receives, integrates info, prepares response
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Receptor Morphology
-different shapes/functions of receptors Simple Receptors: unmyelinated, free nerve endings Complex Neural receptors: myelinated, nerve endings enclosed in connective tissue Special Senses Receptors: Myelinated, release neurotransmitters onto sensory neurons
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Special Senses Receptors
-somatic: tactile, thermal, pain, proprioceptive -Visceral: internal organs
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Exteroceptors
-near body surface -external stimuli
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Interoceptors
-deep - comes from body -BP, blood pH, proprioception
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Nociceptors
-occur in all receptors that are sensitive to stimuli that either damage or have damage potential -can take a scenic route instead of going to the brain
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Proprioceptors
-muscles, tendons, ligaments, tendons -position and kinesthetic sense
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Photoreceptors
-vision
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Tonic Receptors
-respond continuously if stimulus remains -slow adapting -detect object pressure (static) Book laying on hand
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Phasic Receptors
-adapt to continuous stimulus and then stop responding even with stimulus -fast adapting -motion, vibration, rate of change Wearing glasses, clothing on body
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Afferent Axon diameter decreasing diameter
Ia, Ib, II, III, IV AB, ADelta, C
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Sensory neuron receptive field
-area of skin innervated by 1 afferent nerve -smaller fields with greater densiy distally, more sensitivity -larger fields proximally, less sensitivity
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Cutaneous Receptors
Superficial, subcutaneous, mechanoreceptors (AB), Free nerve endings (Adelta & C) -all go to the same peripheral nerve bundle
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Superficial Cutaneous Receptors
-small receptive field, epidermis and dermal palpalae -Meisner's Corpuscles: light touch, vibration (superficial) -Merkel's Discs: pressure (deeper)
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Subcutaneous Cutaneous Receptors
-large receptive field, dermis -Pacinian Corpuscle: touch, vibration (deeper) -Ruffini's ending: stretch (more superficial)
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Mechanoreceptors
-light touch, vibration, stretch, pressure - AB fibers
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Free nerve endings
-ADelta & C fibers -course touch, pain, temperature
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Conduction
-3rd step of sensory system Determinants: -Modality: specialized stimulation -Location -Intensity: # and frequency of activated receptors -Duration
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Signal Integration Levels
3 Levels -Receptor Level: normal receptor/stimulus interaction; more stimulus more reaction -Circuit level -Perceptual Level
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Circuit Level of Integration
-Divergence: synapses spread AP to several areas of CNS -Convergence: synapses can focus action potentials from several sensory neurons on narrowed area
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Perceptual Level of Integration
-sensory tract caries impulse to respective region of the brain -testing comes in to determine what level of integration is faulty
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Nerve Conduction Velocity Tresting
Electrical stimulation to peripheral nerves (NCV) Looks at -Distal latency: time from stimulation to distal recording sight (testing myelination) -Amplitude: # of axons conducting -Conduction Velocity: indication of myelin Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP) -tests peripheral and central pathways stimulation at distal sight recording proximally
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Clinical Implications : Peripheral Nerve Lesions
-neuropathy -Nerve compression: large first then small Order of sensory loss -proprioception and light tough -cold -fast pain -heat -slow pain
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Clinical Implications : Sensory Ataxia
-injury to dorsal column, roots, or nerves -EC vs EO testing Cerebellar: cannot adapt, same with EC/EO, intact proprioception Sensory: can adapt with EO/EC, impaired proprioception
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Clinical Implications : Varicella Roster
-Shingles -painful rash in dermatome pattern -chicken pox remains dormant in sensory ganglia then travel to nerve endings
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Nociceptive Pain
-acute or chronic tissue injury stimulates nociceptors to become perception of pain
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Non-Nociceptive pain
-malfunction of neural pain without the presence of injury -neuropathic pain, central sensitivity, pain syndromes
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Pain Control
Central Processing: -cingulate and insula during perception of pain Endogenous Opioids: -endorphins bind to opiate receptors Spinal Cord: -inhibitory neurons -enkephalin and dynorphin Segmental Level of Control: -Gate control theory -non nociceptive fibers closes a gate for nociceptive fibers
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Pain inhibition (at each level)
Periphery: decreases prostaglandins, -Gate control theory: non nociceptive fibers closes a gate for nociceptive fibers Dorsal Horn: release enkephalin or dynorphin Brainstem: descending system Hormonal System: pituitary gland and periaqueductal grey Cortical Level: prefrontal, insular, and cingulate lobes -spinolimbic, spinomesencephslic, and spinoreticular tracts
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Referred Pain
-visceral tissues to skin -convergence of nociceptive and somatic info
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Chronic Pain
Disease (Primary pain): -no biological function or tissue damage Ex: fibromyalgia, migraines Symptom (secondary pain): -symptom of another condition -continuous stimulation of nociceptors from tissue injury -even after healing -damage to somatosensory system
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Central Sensitization
-CNS responds excessively to continuing nociceptive input -cause changes to cells reactiveness -pain top-down regulation disturbed
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Paresthesia
-abnormal sensation -dysfunction of neurons
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Neuropathic Pain
-pain from direct lesion or disease -Dysesthesias
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Dysesthesias
- abnormal sensation that can occur on it's own or from stimulation Allodynia, hyperalgesia, spontaneous pain, temporal summation
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Allodynia
pain caused by something that normally doesn't cause pain
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Hyperalgesia
-Primary: excessive sensitivity to normal pain -Secondary: pain spreads to uninjured areas
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Spontaneous Pain
pain unrelated to external stimulus
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Temporal Summation
-increased pain due to repeated stimulus
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Fibromyalgia
-tenderness and stiffness of muscles and tissues -widespread pain -increased pain without stimuli
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Complex Regional Pain Syndrome
-not related to nerve or nerve root distribution -affects distal limb -abnormal response to trauma -central sensitization with functional changes in brain Sx: red or pale skin, edema, stiff joints, muscle atrophy, tremors
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Nonspecific Low Back Pain
-no specific injury -muscle guarding and abnormal movements
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Ectopic Foci
-cause pain -outside of nociceptors and become unmyelinated, increasing sensitivity to stimuli
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Ephaptic Transmission
-Cross Talk -lack of insulation due to demyelination that allows 1 action potential to affect more than 1 neuron -cause for allodynia
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Structural Reorganization
-long term central sensitization causes CNS rewiring -new synapses carry more nociceptive information
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Small Fiber Neuropathy
Partial central sensitization cause by : -post-herpetic neuralgia: shingles -diabetes -gulliain barre syndrome (polyneuropathies)
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Phantom Limb Sensations
-sensations related to posture, length, and movement of missing limb Residual Limb Pain: -easier to treat then Phantom limb pain Phantom Limb Pain: -absence of sensory inputs causing nociceptors to be overactive
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PT Clinical Implication (chronic pain)
-considered psychosocial aspects of chronic pain -Consider: distress, disuse, and disability
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Muscle Spindle Components
-on skeletal muscles to sense stretch Intrafusal Muscle in non-contractile regions -Dynamic nuclear bag (1a, dynamic y) -Static Nuclear Bag (1a, II, static y) -Nuclear Chain (1a, II, static y) Large Diameter myelinated sensory receptors -central regions of fibers Small Diameter myelinated motor endings -innervate polar contractile regions
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Extrafusal Muscle Fibers
Outer skeletal muscle that generate movement by attaching to tendon
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Intrafusal Muscle Fibers
Inner skeletal muscles that form spindle -non-contractile -proprioceptors (length and velocity)
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Nuclear Bag Fibers
Type of Intrafusal Fibers -centrally located -large Static Dynamic
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Nuclear Chain Fibers
Type of intrafusal fiber -smaller -length dependent -activate alpha motor neurons
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Ia Fibers
-primary sensory endings on muscle spindle -phasic and tonic discharges -changes to length
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IIa
-secondary sensory endings -tonic discharges -responds to steady state length
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Gamma Motor Neuron
-regulate sensitivity of muscle spindle fibers -innervate polar regions and stretch -motor supply to intrafusal fibers Dynamic: innervate dynamic NB, increase sensitivity of Ia Static: innervate NB and NC, increase tonic activity both, decrease dynamic sensitivity Ia
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Alpha-Gamma Co-activation
Gamma: innervate polar regions and initiate stretch causing; mechanical gated channels to depolarize on intrafusal fibers Alpha: .... contract the muscle to maintain length-tension relationship
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Reciprocal Inhibition
-1 muscle contracts and opposing muscle is inhibited 1. Intrafusal fiber senses stretch 2. Info travels to dorsal horn 3. Interneuron 4.Travels to ventral horn 5. Opposite muscle
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Golgi Tendon Organ
-proprioceptive structures at junction between muscle fibers and tendon -sensitive to stretch in tendon/contraction of muscle -innervated by Ib fibers that send AP to
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GTO Motor Control
-afferent signal from GTO relaxes muscles OR activates muscles depending on receptors and feedback
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Motor Neuron Pools
-clusters MNs in SC -innervate a single muscle Medal MN: innervate axial and proximal limb muscles, laterally, distal Ventrally MN: innervate extensors and dorsal flexors
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Small MNs
-innervate slow twitch fibers -less force -long periods of time
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Large MNs
-fast twitch fibers -large forces -fatigue quickly
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Rate Coding
-MN signals amount of force exerted by muscle
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Size Principle of MNs
-smaller MNs are recruited and fire before larger Ohm's Law: V=IR (voltage= current x resistance)
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Transverse Tube
(T-tube) -surrounds sarcoplasmic reticulum and propagates
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
-released acetylcholine -stores Ca+
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Z Line
-fibrous disc at end of each sarcomere
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M line
-holds together fibers at sarcomere center
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Titin
-maintains actin/myosin positions to prevent them from being pulled apart
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Troponin
-calcium binding causes tropomyosin to move and uncover sites on actin
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Muscle Tone
Resistance to stretch of a muscle
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Muscles immobilized in shortened position
-lose sarcomeres
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Muscles immobilized in lengthened position
Gain sarcomeres
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Phasic Stretch Reflex
-DTR -muscle contraction in response to quick stretch -monosynaptic
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Cutaneous Withdrawl Reflex
-monosynaptic -response to pain, withdrawal/flexion before consciously aware of pain
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Muscle Cramps
-painful contractions due to overstimulation of nerve tracts
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Fasciculations
-fast twitches of all motor fibers in a MU -eyelash twitching
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Myoclonus
-brief contractions of a group of muscles
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Tremors
-involuntary rhythmic movements -with movement or at rest
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Polio and post-polio syndrome (types)
1. normal MU 2. death of selected MUs 3. Neuroplasticity cause giant motor units 4. Muscle fatigue and pain
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CN of PNS
I and II
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Order of Nerve Naming (CNS to PNS)
Rootlets Root Spinal Nerve Rami Peripheral Nerve
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Axoplasm
-transports nutrients and chemicals -allows nerves to glide -becomes viscous when stationary
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A-Alpha Nerve Fibers
-fastest and thickest -Muscle spindles and golgi, touch, MNs
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Ia Nerve Fibers
-fastest and thickest -muscle spindle
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A-Beta Nerve Fibers
-2nd thickness and speed -touch, muscle spindle
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A-Gamma Nerve Fibers
-3rd thickest -touch, pressure, gamma MNs
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Ib Nerve Fibers
2nd-thickness -golgi tendon organs
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II Nerve Fibers
3rd thickest -touch, muscle spindle
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III
-pain, crude touch, pressure, temp -touch, muscle spindle
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A-delta Nerve Fibers
-pain, crude touch, pressure, temp
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B Nerve Fibers
-preganglionic autonomic
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C Nerve Fibers
-slowest, thinnest -pain, crude touch, pressure, temp -postganglionic autonomic
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IV Nerve Fibers
-Slowest, thinnest -pain, crude touch, pressure, temp
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Cervical Plexus
-C1-C4
315
Lumbar Plexus
-L1-L4
316
Sacral Plexus
-L5-S4
317
Peripheral Neuropathy
-any disease of peripheral nerves
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Mononeuropathy
-single nerve involvement Traumatic Myelinopathy: -repeated mechanical pressure and myelin gets damaged -carpal tunnel Traumatic Axonopathy: -crush injury or fracture -can regrow if schwann and myelin remain (1mm/day) Severance: -poor prognosis -wallerian degeneration within 3-5dy
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Polyneuropathy
-symmetric involvement -distal to proximal distribution Small fibers: -pain, temp, numb loss Large fibers: -ataxia, proprioception loss
320
Guillain-Barre Syndrome
-acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy -occurs after viral infection -motor issues -can recover
321
Spinal Levels Traveling Caudally
-L2-S5
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Medial Dorsal Rootlets
-Ia and AB for fine touch and proprioception
323
Lateral Dorsal Rootlets
-AGamma and c fibers for pain and temp
324
Propriospinal Tract
-only in SC -surround grey matter
325
Tract Cells
Long axon cells
326
Clark's Nucleus
- T1-L3 -proprioceptive info to cerebellum
327
Substantia Gelatinosa
-glial and small nerve cells -spinothalamic
328
Lateral Horn
-T1-L2 -cell bodies of pregangilonic SNS neurons
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Preganglionic PNS Cell Bodies
-S2-S4
330
Epidural Space
-L3-L4
331
Order of Spinal Arteries
-Anterior Spinal Artery -Segmental A. -Segmental Marginal A -Radicular A.
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Mmt of SC
-stretches 10% with flexion -none for Cauda
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Jendrassik's Maneuver
-changes descending input to alter motor function
334
Central Pattern Generators
-Rhythmic activity patters generated by central circuits without external cues -locomotion, swimming, breathing, swallowing, urinating
335
Stepping Pattern Generators
-type of GPG for walking without cortical output -flexor-extensor activation using proprioceptive information -has to be activated
336
Withdrawal Reflex
-remove noxious input by activating remaining LE to prevent falling -crossed extension reflex
337
Reciprocal Inhibition
-inhibits activated of antagonist while turning on agonist
338
Recurrent Inhibition
-inhibit agonist and synergist muscles to turn on antagonist -Renshaw cells
339
SC Control of Bladder and Bowel
-afferent into needed -T11-L2 and S2-S4 Frontal Cortex: tells pons to empty OR corticospinal tract to contract PF muscles Pons: Sends signals to sacral cord center to contract bladder Sacral Cord: signals parasympathetic neurons to contract bladder and relax sphincters
340
SC Control of Sexual Function
Psychogenic processes: L1-L2 Reflexogenic Processes: S2-S4 Pudenal: L1-L2 and S2:S4 for orgasm Injuries -Above T12: loss of erection and genital sensation, reflexive erections -L2-S2 intact circuits: normal function, no sensation -S2-S4 circuit lesion: nothing
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Segmental SC Injuries
-dermatomal or myotomal patters
342
Vertical Tract Impairments
-ipsi/contra deficits below lesion
343
Anterior Cord Syndrome
-A. Spinal Artery issue -Paralysis, analgesia, loss of discriminative sensation, loss of temp below lesion -Keep proprioception and light touch (DCML)
344
Central Cord Syndrome
-trauma induced Small Lesion: pain and nociception impaired at level of lesion Large Lesion: pain and nociception impaired at level of lesion AND UE motor issues
345
Brown-Sequard (Hemicord) Syndrome
Ipsilateral segment: -paralysis and analgesia of everything Ipsilateral Below: -Paralysis and loss of proprioception and light touch Contralateral Below: -nociceptive and temp impaired
346
Cauda Equina Syndrome
-sensation impaired, pain, LE paralysis, bowel/bladder -no hyperreflexia
347
Tethered Cord Syndrome
- stretch injury, scar tissue -LE, bowel/bladder, spine issues Ant. Cauda equina: LMN Excessive stretch: UMN
348
Spinal Shock
-24h-3wks -all reflexes, function and autonomic regulation lost -end with return of anal reflexes
349
Post-Traumatic SC Injury
-hyperexcitability and hyperreflexia -more sensation -poor thermoregulation -orthostatic hypotension -dysreflexia
350
SC Bowel/Bladder Dysfunction
S2-S4: flaccid a-reflexive bladder Above S2-S4: hyperreflexive bladder -reflex emptying or spasms that cause urine to backflow into kidneys
351
SC Injury and Sexual