Exam II Flashcards
1
Q
Class Sarcopterygii
A
Lobe-finned fishes; Old lineage, fins shifting to legs, gills to lungs
2
Q
What are derived characters of tetrapods?
A
Four limbs and feet with digits, ears for detecting airborne sounds
3
Q
Amphibians are represented by about _____ species of organisms in 3 orders.
A
6,150
4
Q
“Amphibian” translates to _____.
A
Both ways of life
5
Q
Fertilization occurs externally in _____.
A
Amphibians
6
Q
What are the 3 amphibian orders?
A
orders Caudata, Anura, and Apoda
7
Q
Order Caudata
A
with tails; salamanders
8
Q
Order Anura
A
Lacking tails; frogs and toads
9
Q
Order Apoda
A
Legless, resembling words; Caecilians
10
Q
What are the causes of the decline in amphibian populations?
A
Chrytid fungus, habitat loss, climate change, trematodes (cause deformities), pollution and chemicals
11
Q
A derived character of tetrapods is
A
four limbs
12
Q
Amniotes
A
A group of tetrapods whose living members are the reptiles, including birds, and mammals
13
Q
Derived characters of amniotes?
A
Amniotic egg, relatively impermeable skin, ability to use the rib cage to ventilate the lungs
14
Q
What are the extra-embryonic membranes in an amniotic egg?
A
Amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois
15
Q
The reptile clade includes:
A
Tuataras, lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodilians, birds, and the extinct dinosaurs
16
Q
Derived characters of reptiles?
A
Reptiles have scales that create a waterproof barrier, they lay shelled eggs on land
17
Q
Ectothermic
A
Cold blooded. When an animal’s body temperature changes with the temperature of its surroundings
18
Q
Endothermic
A
Warm blooded. Keeps a constant body temp. Temperature is regulated internally
19
Q
Most reptiles are ___
A
Ectothermic
20
Q
Birds are ___
A
Endothermic
21
Q
Squamata
A
Lizards and snakes
22
Q
Rhynchocephalia
A
Tautaras
23
Q
Archosaur
A
A member of the reptilian group that includes crocodiles, alligators, and dinosaurs, including birds
24
Q
Pterosaurs
A
Winged reptiles that lived during the time of dinosaurs
25
All turtles have a boxlike shell made of upper and lower shields that are fused to the _____, _____, and _____.
Vertebrae, clavicles, ribs
26
Crocodilians belong to the _____ lineage and dates back to the late _____.
Archosaur, Triassic
27
What are derived characters of birds?
Wings with Keratin feathers, lack of urinary bladder, four chambered heart, endothermy, females with only one ovary, small gonads, loss of teeth
28
A marsupial embryo develops within a _____ in the mother's uterus.
Placenta
29
Mammals are represented by more than _____ species.
5,300
30
Eutherians
Placental mammal; mammal whose young complete their embryonic development within the uterus, joined to the mother by the placenta.
31
What are derived characters of mammals?
Mammary glands, which produce milk, hair, a larger brain than other vertebrates of equivalent size, differentiated teeth
32
What were the three lineages of mammals that emerged by the Cretaceous?
Monotremes, marsupials, eutherians
33
Monotremes
Egg laying mammals
34
Placenta
A structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with the mother's blood supply
35
Primates
An animal order including lemurs and tarsiers and monkeys and apes and human beings
36
What are derived characteristics of primates?
```
Grasping hand with 1st opposable digit
Flat fingernails instead of claws
Reduced sense of smell
Stereoscopic, color vision
Small litters
Reduction to two mammary glands
Relatively long gestation
Relatively large brain size
Teeth evolved for omnivorous diet
```
37
Paleoanthropology
The study of the history of human evolution through the fossil record
38
Hominids
Humans and other creatures that walk upright
39
Hominids originated in Africa about _____ million years ago.
6 1/2
40
Derived characteristics of humans?
Upright posture and bipedal locomotion, larger brains capable of language, symbolic thought, artistic expression, the manufacture and use of complex tools, reduced jawbones and jaw muscles, shorter digestive tract
41
Anatomy
The study of body structure
42
Gross Anatomy
Large structures, easily observable
43
Physiology
Study of function
44
Amphibians
Vertebrates that live in water and on land, smooth skin covers body, lay eggs, cold blooded
45
Interstitial fluid
Fluid between cells
46
Tissues make up _____.
organs
47
How many body cavities do Vertebrates have?
2
48
Dorsal body cavity
Contains the cranial cavity and spinal column
49
Ventral body cavity
Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
50
Thoracic cavity
Cavity housing lungs and heart
51
Abdominopelvic cavity
Contains both the abdominal and pelvic cavities
52
Pericardial cavity
Contains the heart
53
Pleural Cavity
Contains the lungs
54
Peritoneal cavity
Space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum
55
What are the four main categories of tissues?
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
56
Epithelial tissue
A body tissue that covers the surfaces of the body, inside and out
57
Cube shaped
Cuboidal
58
Columnar
Column shaped
59
Squamous
Flat, like floor tiles
60
The shape of epithelial cells can be one of three:
Cuboidal, squamous, columnar
61
Pseudostratified
This type of epithelial tissue appears to have multiple layers but all cells are in contact with the basement membrane; single layer of uneven thickness
62
The arrangement of epithelial cells may be _____, ______, or _____.
Simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (single uneven layer of thickness)
63
Connective tissue
A body tissue that provides support for the body and connects all of its parts
64
Special connective tissue
Cartilage, bone, blood
65
Fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
66
Loose connective tissue
Surrounds various organs and supports both nerve cells and blood vessels, binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
67
Collagen
Structural protein found in the skin and connective tissue
68
Elastin
Protein base similar to collagen that forms elastic tissue
69
Reticulin
Helps support the network of collagen
70
Macrophages
Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream.
71
Cartilage
A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together.
72
Fibrous connective tissue
Dense tissue, large number of collagen fibers organized into parallel bundles. Includes ligaments and tendons.
73
Tendons
Connect muscle to bone
74
Ligaments
Connect bone to bone at joints
75
Adipose tissue
Tissue that stores fat.
76
Blood
A connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended.
77
Bone
A connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets are suspended.
Blood
Collagen and the mineral hydroxyapatite, forms skeleton
78
Muscle tissue
A body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move.
79
Skeletal muscle
A muscle that is attached to the bones of the skeleton and provides the force that moves the bones, also known as striated muscle
80
Smooth muscle
Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body
81
Cardiac muscle
Muscle of the heart
82
Matrix
Abundant extracellular material
83
Nervous tissue
A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body.
84
Neurons
A body tissue that carries electrical messages back and forth between the brain and every other part of the body.
Nervous tissue
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
85
Cell body
Contains nucleus
86
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.
87
Axon
The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
88
Neuroglial cells
Provide physical support, insulation, and nutrients for neurons
89
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord; integration and interpretation of input
90
Peripheral nervous system
Nerves and ganglia; Communication of signal to and from the CNS to the rest of the body
91
Endocrine system
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
92
Hormones
Chemical signals
93
Regulator
An animal that uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external fluctuation.
94
Conformer
An animal that allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
95
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
96
Set point
The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
97
Negative feedback
A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation.
98
Positive feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.
99
Most homeostatic control systems function by _____ _____.
Negative feedback
100
_____ _____ does not generally contribute to homeostasis.
Positive feedback
101
Antagonistic Effectors
Homeostasis is often maintained by opposing effectors that move conditions in opposite directions
102
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
103
Thalamus
The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
104
If the hypothalamus detects high temperature, it _____.
Promotes heat dissipation via sweating and dilation of blood vessels in skin
105
If the hypothalamus detects low temperature, it _____.
Promotes heat conservation via shivering and constriction of blood vessels in skin
106
Examples of positive feedback?
Blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
107
Thermoregulation
Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.
108
Ectotherms can tolerate greater ranges of _____ temperature.
Internal
109
Endotherms can tolerate greater ranges of _____ temperature.
External
110
What are the four physical processes of heat exchange
Conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation
111
Conduction
The direct transfer of heat from one substance to another substance that it is touching.
112
Convection
The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid, consistent flow of heat over top of organism
113
heat Radiation
Direct transfer of heat from a radiation energy source of higher temperature to one of cooler temperature. directly absorbed without the need for a medium.
114
Evaporation
Loss of heat
115
What are the five ways organisms thermoregulate?
Insulation, circulatory adaptions, cooling by evaporative heat loss, behavioral responses, adjusting metabolic heat production
116
Insulation
A major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds; skin, feathers, fur, and blubber reduce heat flow between an animal and its environment
117
Circulatory Adaptations
Altering the amount of blood flowing between the body core and the skin
118
Vasodilation
Blood flow in the skin increases, facilitating heat loss
119
Vasoconstriction
Blood flow in the skin decreases, lowering heat loss
120
Alcohol is a _____.
Vasodilator
121
The arrangement of blood vessels in many marine mammals and birds allows for _____ _____.
Countercurrent exchange
122
Countercurrent exchange
The exchange of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions
123
Evaporative loss
Sweating, panting, bathing
124
Behavioral responses to heat
Assume posture that minimizes or maximizes absorption of solar heat
125
Migration
Cyclic movement often timed with the seasons
126
Antifreeze
A substance which slows the process of freezing by changing the freezing point of water
127
As an endotherm, would it be easier to be small or big?
Big
128
The hypothalamus is involved in what?
Mammalian thermoregulation
129
Thermogenesis
Generation of heat
130
Epinephrine
Adrenaline
131
Environmental stimuli
Change in an organism's external surroundings like a change in light or temperature
132
Sensory receptors
Specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulation.
133
Motor effectors
Respond to stimulus
134
The nervous system links _____ _____ and _____ _____.
Sensory receptors, motor effectors
135
Peripheral nervous system
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
136
Where is the central nervous system found?
The dorsal axis
137
Somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
138
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
139
Sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
140
Parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
141
Sensory neurons
(Afferent neurons) Carry impulses to central nervous system
142
Motor neurons
(Efferent neurons) Carry impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
143
Interneurons
(Association neurons) Provide more complex reflexes and associative functions (learning and memory)
144
Neuroglia
Cells that support and protect neurons
145
Schwann cells
Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
146
Oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the central nervous system that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
147
Myelin sheaths
Little bodies that speed up the time it takes for the impulse to pass through the neurons
148
Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes both produce _____ _____.
Myelin sheaths
149
In the CNS, myelinated axons form _____ _____.
White matter
150
In the PNS, myelinated axons are bundled to form _____.
Nerves
151
Negative Pole
Cytoplasmic side
152
Positive pole
Extracellular fluid side
153
What are the three types of neurons?
Sensory, motor, interneurons
154
What is the average resting potential of an unstimulated neuron?
-70 mV
155
The inside of the cell is more _____ charged than the outside.
Negatively
156
Sodium-potassium pump
A carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell
157
Ion leakage channels
Allow more K+ to diffuse out than Na+ to diffuse in
158
Concentration of K+ is _____ in the cell.
Higher
159
Neuron membranes are not permeable to _____.
Negative ions
160
Equilibrium potential
The magnitude of the membrane voltage at equilibrium for a particular ion
161
Action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
162
_____ bring the neuron closer to the threshold potential (-55mV).
Depolarizations
163
_____ moves the neuron further from the threshold potential (-55mV).
Hyperpolarizations
164
Action potential is caused by _____ _____ _____ _____.
Voltage-gated ion channels
165
What are the three phases of action potential?
Depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization
166
Action potentials are always _____.
Separate, all-or-none events with same amplitude
167
Intensity of a stimulus is coded by the _____, not amplitude, of action potentials
Frequency
168
Each action potential, in its rising phase, reflects a reversal in _____ _____.
membrane polarity
169
Positive charges are due to an influx of _____.
NA+
170
What is the process of an action potential?
Positive charges can depolarize the adjacent region to threshold, the next region produces its own action potential, and the previous region depolarizes back to the resting membrane potential
171
What are two ways to increase velocity of conduction?
Axon has a large diameter, axon is myelinated
172
Axons with _____ _____ are found primarily in invertebrates.
Large diameters
173
When an axon is myelinated, action potential is only produced at nodes of _____.
Ranvier
174
When an axon is myelinated, impulse jumps from _____ to _____.
Node to node
175
Saltatory conduction
Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.
176
_____ cell transmits action potential.
Presynaptic
177
____ cell receives action potential.
Postsynaptic
178
What are the two basic types of synapses?
Electrical and chemical
179
Electrical synapse
A type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell
180
_____ synapses are rare in vertebrates.
Electrical
181
Chemical synapses have a _____ _____ between the two cells.
Synaptic cleft
182
Action potential triggers an influx of _____.
Ca^2+
183
_____ _____ fuse with the cell membrane.
Synaptic vesicles
184
Neurotransmitter is released by _____.
Exocytosis
185
_____ action is terminated by enzymatic digestion or cellular uptake.
Neurotransmitter
186
Diffuses to other side of cleft and binds to chemical-or ligand-gated receptor proteins
Neurotransmitter
187
Acetylcholine (ACh)
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
188
_____ binds to receptor in the postsynaptic membrane.
Acetylcholine
189
Acetylcholine causes _____-gated ion channels to open.
Ligand
190
Acetylcholine produces a depolarization called an _____ _____ _____.
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
191
What degrades acetylcholine?
Acetylcholinesterase
192
Acetylcholinesterase causes _____ _____.
Muscle relaxation
193
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
194
Glycine and GABA are _____ neurotransmitters.
Inhibitory
195
Glycine and GABA produce a hyperpolarization called an _____ _____ _____.
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
196
Dopamine
Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
197
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
198
Dopamine also acts outside the nervous system as a _____ messenger and _____.
Paracrine, vasodilator
199
Neuropeptides
Brain chemicals, such as enkephalins and endorphins, that regulate the activity of neurons
200
Intensity of pain perception depends on _____ and _____.
Enkephalins and endorphins
201
Nitric oxide
A gas released by the endothelial cells to promote blood flow
202
What are the two ways that the membrane can reach the threshold voltage?
Spatial summation, temporal summation
203
Spatial summation
Many different dendrites produce EPSPs
204
Temporal summation
One dendrite produces repeated EPSPs
205
What chemicals interfere with hormone signals?
Exogenous chemicals
206
Endocrine disruptors
Chemicals that interfere with the normal functioning of hormones in an animal's body
207
What are examples of endocrine disruptors?
Insecticides, herbicides, dyes, plastics, detergents
208
Chemical signals bind to _____ _____ on target cells.
Receptor proteins
209
Only _____ _____ respond to chemical signals.
Target cells
210
Exocrine glands
Secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body
211
Examples of exocrine glands?
Tear ducts, sweat glands, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, mammary glands, stomach
212
Local regulators
Chemical signals that travel over short distances by diffusion; help regulate blood pressure, nervous system function, reproduction
213
What are the two types of local regulators?
Paracrine and autocrine
214
Paracrine system
Signals act on cells near the secreting cell
215
Autocrine system
Signals acting on the secreting cell itself
216
Synaptic signaling
A nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell
217
Neuroendocrine signaling
Neurohormones diffuse into the bloodstream and trigger responses in target cells anywhere in the body
218
Target cells
Cells that have receptors for a particular hormone
219
Pheromones
Chemical signals released by an animal that communicate information and affect the behavior of other animals of the same species.
220
What are functions of pheromones?
Marking trails leading to food, defining territories, warning of predators, and attracting potential mates
221
What are the three major classes of hormones?
Polypeptides, steroids, amines
222
Polypeptides
Proteins and peptides
223
Amines
Derived from amino acids
224
The solubility of a hormone correlates with the location of _____ inside or on the surface of _____ cells.
Receptors, target
225
Hydrophilic hormones
Secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, bund to cell-surface receptors. Cannot penetrate the target cell, must stimulate physiology indirectly
226
Lipophilic hormones
Diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells. Steroid hormones
227
Signal transduction
A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.
228
Binding of a hormone to a receptor initiates a _____ _____.
Signal transduction
229
Signal transductions lead to what reactions?
Reactions in the cytoplasm, enzyme activation, or a change in gene expression
230
Response to lipid-soluble hormone?
Change in gene expression (typically bypasses most steps to get to receptor)
231
Steroids, thyroid hormones, and the hormonal form of vitamin D enter target cells and bind to protein receptors in the _____ or _____.
Cytoplasm or nucleus
232
_____-_____ complexes act as transcription factors in the nucleus for lipophilic hormones, regulating transcription of specific genes.
Protein-receptor
233
Vitamin D is formed on the skin of _____.
Vertebrates
234
Vitamin D is transported to the _____.
Liver
235
Vitamin D regulates what?
Calcium and phosphate in the blood, cell proliferation and apoptosis, and neuromuscular function
236
Gland hyposecretion
Not producing enough secretion
237
Gland hypersecretion
Gland overproducing secretion
238
What is caused by either an overabundance or a limitation of a hormone?
Gland hyposecretion, gland hypersecretion, tumors (benign or malignant)
239
Negative feedback loop
A feedback loop that causes a system to change in the opposite direction from which it is moving
240
What regulates many hormonal pathways involved in homeostasis?
Negative feedback
241
Antagonistic hormones
Two hormones that have opposite effects.
242
What are examples of antagonistic hormones?
Insulin and glucagon
243
What do the antagonistic hormones insulin and glucagon do?
Maintain glucose homeostasis
244
Pancreas
Regulates the level of sugar in the blood
245
The pancreas has clusters of endocrine cells called _____ _____.
Pancreatic islets
246
What is the older term for pancreatic islets?
Islets of Langerhans
247
Pancreatic islets have _____ cells that produce glucagon and _____ cells that produce insulin.
Alpha, beta
248
Insulin
A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues
249
Glucagon
A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.
250
How does insulin reduce blood glucose levels?
Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose, slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver, promoting fat storage
251
How does glucagon increase blood glucose levels?
Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver, stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose
252
Type I Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin dependent, caused by autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas leading to little or no production of insulin, require regular injections of insulin to permit entry of glucose into cells
253
Type II Diabetes Mellitus
Non-insulin dependent, caused by receptor level resistance to insulin, partially inherited and partially due to environmental factors like obesity, meds can help body more effectively use the insulin it produces
254
Peripheral neuropathy
Disorder of the peripheral nerves that carry information to and from the brain and spinal cord
255
Nephropathy
Disease of the kidney
