Chapter 11 Human Development

Question 1

when is the germinal stage?

Answer 1

is the first stage of prenatal development encompassing the first two weeks after conception

zygote created

36 hours of rapid cell division / microscopic mass of multiplying cells

Question 2

when is embryonic stage?

Answer 2

is the second stage of pre-natal development, lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month

most vital organs and systems begin to form in what is now called the embryo
heart, spine, brain emerge

2.5 cm but looks discernible

most miscarriages occur during this period
most birth defects are also occur during this period

Question 3

when is the fetal stage

Answer 3

is the third stage of pre-natal development, lasting from two months through birth
rapid body growth in the 1st two months as muscles and bones begin to form
becomes capable of physical movement as the skeletal structure hardens
sex organs develop during the 3rd month
during final 3 months, brain cells multiply at a brisk pace

Question 4

the age of viability

Answer 4

the baby can survive in the event of a premature birth

Question 5

Teratogens are

Answer 5

any external agent, such as drugs or viruses that can harm the embryo or fetus

Question 6

fetal alcohol syndrome is

Answer 6

a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy:

microcephaly (small head)

heart defects, irritability

hyperactivity

delayed mental and motor development

most common know cause of intellectual disability

Question 7

caphalocaudal trend is the

Answer 7

head to toe direction of motor development

Question 8

proximodistal trend is the

Answer 8

centre-outward direction of motor development

Question 9

maturation trend is the

Answer 9

development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint
i.e. genetically programmed changes that come with age as opposed to experience and learning

Question 10

Summarize the findings of Thomas and Chess’s longitudinal study of infant temperament

Answer 10

according to Thomas and Chess,

temperamental individuality is established by 2-3 months

40% are easy children

15% slow to warm up, less cheery, less regular in sleeping/eating

10% difficult children - glum erratic, resistant to change, relative irritability

35% showed mixtures of these three

3 months is a good predictor of how they’ll be at age 10 (temperament is generally stable)

appears to be influenced by heredity

Question 11

cohort effects (short coming of cross sectional study) occur when

Answer 11

differences between age groups are due to the groups growing up in different time periods

Question 12

when does separation anxiety peak?

Answer 12

14- 18 months

Question 13

Behaviourists believe that attachment is

Answer 13

classical conditioning - mother becomes a CS because she offers food

Question 14

Harlow study seriously undermined the Behaviourist theory how?

Answer 14

created 2 kinds of mothers,
the terry cloth mother could provide contact comfort
the wire mother, no contact comfort
half of group were fed by wire mother, half were fed by terry cloth
measured how much time monkeys spent with each
they spent more time with the cloth mothers because they were able to cling to them so they could provide security

Question 15

Bowlby proposed an alternative explanation:

Answer 15

infants are programmed to exhibit endearing behaviour such as smiling, cooing, clinging that triggers affectionate and protective response from adults

adults are wired to be captivated by this behaviour

attachment –> tendency to stay near parent –> increased protection from predators –> higher survival rate

evolutionary psychologists focus on how attachment can contribute to reproductive fitness

attachment –> social maturity –> increased mating success –> higher reproductive fitness

Question 16

Mary Ainsworth (colleage of Bowlby) came up with which procedure

Answer 16

the strange situation:

infants are exposed to 8 separation and reunion episodes to assess quality of their attachment

Question 17

3 kinds of attachment

Answer 17

Secure - warm-responsive caregiving style
Anxious ambivalent - inconsistent caregiving style
Avoidant - cold/rejecting caregiving style

Question 18

internal working models are

Answer 18

infant-caregiver bonds that create set experiences about how close relationships tend to unfold

Question 19

how many stages of development did Erikson propose?

Answer 19

8

Question 20

1st stage is Trust VS Mistrust

Answer 20

first year of life
if a child’s basic needs are tended to he will develop trust toward the world, if not then he will be distrusting/pessimistic

Question 21

2nd stage is Autonomy VS Shame/Doubt

Answer 21

the child of 2-3 years learns skills of self care like toilet, eating, dressing

if all goes well he will have a sense of self-sufficiency, if there are too many conflicts and unmet expectations by the parents, then he will have a lot of shame and self-doubt

Question 22

third stage is Initiative VS Guilt

Answer 22

children of 3-6 experiment and push the boundaries to assert their initiative

over controlling parents may instill guilt and damage self-esteem

ideally the kid asserts initiative while respecting others

Question 23

fourth stage is Industry VS Inferiority

Answer 23

age 6 - puberty

learning to function socially beyond the family and into school

productivity is highly valued

kids should learn to value achievement and

take pride in accomplishment resulting in a sense of competence

Question 24

down side of stage theory:

Answer 24

inadequate explanation of individual differences

Question 25

Piaget’s theory is

Answer 25

cognitive development refers to transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering and problem solving (mainly led by Jean Piaget in 2nd half of 20th century) He was into stage theory, as well

Question 26

Assimilation involves

Answer 26

interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them child is given an apple and says ball

Question 27

Accommodation involves

Answer 27

changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences child learns to differentiate between apple and ball

Question 28

Piaget's Sensorimotor Period (stage 1)

Answer 28

birth to age 2 developing coordination of sensory input with motor action gradual appearance of symbolic thought beginning of stage is pure reflex but later on child use mental symbols

Question 29

Object permanence develops when a

Answer 29

child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible first signs at 4 - 8 months but they don't master the concept until 18 months

Question 30

Piaget's Preoperational Period (stage 2)

Answer 30

age 2 - 7 improve use of mental images but still has limits limited ability to perform operations: internal transformations, manipulations, reorganizations or mental structures

Question 31

conservation is Piaget's term for (Preoperational Period age 2 - 7)

Answer 31

the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearances Beaker water experiment...no the tall one has more even thought its the same amount of water as the wider/shorter beaker

Question 32

centration is (Preoperational Period age 2 - 7)

Answer 32

the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects

Question 33

irreversibility is (Preoperational Period age 2 - 7)

Answer 33

the inability to envision reversing an action they can't mentally undo an action so they can't picture what it'd be like to pour the water back into the wider beaker

Question 34

egocentrism thinking is (Preoperational Period age 2 - 7)

Answer 34

they can't really accept POV other than their own: if you ask a child in this stage whether her sister has a sister, then will likely say, no because they have egocentrism thinking, characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint

Question 35

animism (Preoperational Period age 2 - 7)

Answer 35

a notable feature of egocentrism is animism - the belief that all things are living

Question 36

Concrete Operational Period (stage 3)

Answer 36

7 - 11 can perform concrete operations on images of tangible objects and actual events reversibility and decentration occur helping the kid to see things from many perspectives leads to a decline in egocentrism and gradual mastery of conservation

Question 37

Formal Operational Period (Stage 4)

Answer 37

age 11 children begin to apply their operations to abstract concepts children graduate to relatively adult modes in this stage and believed that further changes are in degree, not fundamental changes in the way of thinking adolescents become more systematic in problem solving characterized as abstract, systematic, logical and reflective

Question 38

critique of Piaget theory

Answer 38

controversy lies in that he sees it as a relatively discontinuous process/series of discreet stages 1) researchers have found evidence that children develop object permanence much earlier than he thought 2) people often display patterns of simultaneous thinking, which calls into question the value of organizing development in terms of stages 3) research has found that the progression of thinking in terms of development doesn't change, but the rate/age at which kids go through them fluctuate - he underestimated the role of environment

Question 39

Pascual-Leone M-capacity

Answer 39

overlaps with the concept of working memory; refers to the maximum number of mental concepts that an individual can keep in mind at one time

Question 40

Lev Vygotsky the zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Answer 40

is the gap between what a learner can accomplish alone and what he can achieve with guidance from more skilled partners

Question 41

scaffolding occurs when

Answer 41

the assistance provided to a child is adjusted as learning progresses (less help is needed as the child gets it)

Question 42

are some cognitive abilities innate?

Answer 42

they understand very basic math with virtually no opportunity to have learned it 3-4 months infants understand that objects are distinct entities with boundaries, that they move in a continuous path, one solid object cannot pass through an opening that is smaller than the object, and that objects on slopes roll down, liquids are different than solids

Question 43

critical period is

Answer 43

the limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences

Question 44

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Answer 44

focusses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour

Question 45

pre-conventional level: (Kohlberg’s theory )

Answer 45

younger children at pre-conventional level: acts are wrong because they are punishable or right because they lead to positive reinforcement

Question 46

conventional level: (Kohlberg’s theory )

Answer 46

older children at conventional level: see rules as ways of maintaining social order internalize the rules as "their own" follow them to be virtuous and win approval from others rules are thought of as absolute guidelines, rigid

Question 47

post-conventional level: (Kohlberg’s theory )

Answer 47

adolescents in post-conventional level: working out a personal code of ethic less rigid acceptance of rules, flexibility would be able to accept Edward Snowdon

Question 48

pubescence is the term used to describe

Answer 48

the two year span preceding puberty, during which the changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place

Question 49

secondary sex characteristics

Answer 49

physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction eg: voice change for boys, greater skeletal and muscle growth in upper body breast growth and widening of pelvic bones, plus fat deposits in this area resulting in wider hips

Question 50

puberty: is the stage during which

Answer 50

the sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the beginning of adolescence; primary sex characteristics develop fully

Question 51

menarche is

Answer 51

the first occurrence of menstruation

Question 52

if you develop early or late, when would it be a problem for development?

Answer 52

girls who tend to start early and boys who start late tend to have problems early maturation is associated with greater alcohol and drugs, high risk behavior and trouble with the law among females, early maturation is correlated to poorer school performance, earlier experience of intercourse and unwanted pregnancies, eating disorders, psychological problems

Question 53

adolescence is a time of turmoil?

Answer 53

sort of but not really; suicide rates are higher in adults experts consensus say it's not an exceptionally difficult period not all adolescents experience storms and stress but it is more likely than at other ages challenging adaptation do have to be made during this period, though most teens reportedly are happy with their lives but statistics are:

Question 54

suicide ranks where for leading cause of death?

Answer 54

suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death among adolescents, in Canada 2nd between 10-24 but even with the increase in 15-19 year old suicide rates, it's still lower than older age groups

Question 55

James Marcia: 4 identity statuses (not stages)

Answer 55

identity diffusion identity foreclosure identity moratorium identity achievement

Question 56

identity diffusion

Answer 56

rudderless apathy with no commitment to ideology

Question 57

identity foreclosure

Answer 57

premature commitment to visions, values and roles, typically those prescribed by ones parents (conformity, not open to new experiences)

Question 58

identity moratorium

Answer 58

involves delaying commitment to experiment with alternative ideologies

Question 59

identity achievement

Answer 59

arriving at a sense of direction after some time considering alternatives associated with higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation, capacity for intimacy

Question 60

Erikson divided adulthood into how many stages?

Answer 60

Erikson divided adulthood into 3 stages

Question 61

early adulthood: intimacy VS isolation (Erikson)

Answer 61

key concern is whether one can develop capacity to share intimacy with others successful resolution of this stage promotes empathy and openness

Question 62

middle adulthood: generativity VS self absorption (Erikson)

Answer 62

acquire a general concern for younger generations providing unselfish guidance to younger people and concern with one's legacy maybe they are talking about this re: midlife crisis? i.e. be involved in helping the youth rather than wallow in the fact that you are not that anymore?

Question 63

late adulthood stage: integrity VS despair (Erikson)

Answer 63

challenge is to avoid to dwell on past mistakes or looming death find meaning and satisfaction, rather than wallow in bitterness and despair

Question 64

fluid intelligence refers to

Answer 64

basic information processing skills tends to decline with age

Question 65

crystalized intelligence refers to

Answer 65

application of accumulated knowledge remains stable

Question 66

meta-memory is the awareness of

Answer 66

one's own memory condition that older adults have

Question 67

Explain how Chapter 11 highlights the theme of the joint influence of heredity and environment

Answer 67

children with difficult temperaments elicit different reactions from different parents, depending on their personalities and expectations parents will affect their children depending on the child's inborn characteristics

Question 68

role of androgens in pre-natal

Answer 68

androgens: high in prenatal = male, low = female; so imbalances can cause them to act more feminine or masculine (more evidence for women than men - lesbo) fetal testosterone levels positively correlated to male-typical play in both boys and girls

Question 69

What three critical thinking skills could you use to evaluate the argument of whether fathers essential to children's well-being?

Answer 69

1) no fathers/more problems is correlational, not causation so it may have been a whack of other things mass media influence decline of religion dramatic shifts in attitudes around sex so it is SPECULATIVE to infer that it is the cause 2) what are the alternative explanations? divorce is the biggest reason for father absence, and divorce in itself is really stressful elevates risk for neg developments prevalence of father absence co-varies with socio-economic status, thus effects of father absence are entangled with the many malignant effects of poverty 3) is there contradicting evidence? yes: a study comparing lesbo and hetero found no difference 4) is there fallacies in reasoning? slippery slope of one social scientist: "if present trends continue we could be on the verge of social suicide" false dichotomy: to tolerate the trend of fatherlessness is to accept the inevitability of continued social recession (false dichotomy creates an either or choice between the position one wants to advocate, with some obviously horrible outcome