Chapter 2 research methods

Question 1

Briefly identify and describe the three goals of the scientific enterprise

Answer 1

measurement and description

understanding and prediction

application and control

Question 2

define hypothesis

Answer 2

is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. This happens before a theory can be established.

hypotheses, which are so specific that we use them to make predictions in research

Question 3

define theory

Answer 3

Theories are general explanations about behavior and events that are backed up by research. Think of it as post Hypothesis

help organize a variety of observable events, make sense of them, make predictions about them, and connect them with more comprehensive principles. In essence, theories explain observable events in a meaningful way. Keep in mind that theories are not as specific as hypotheses, which are so specific that we use them to make predictions in research.

theory must be empirically testable

Question 4

Identify and describe the five steps in scientific investigations

Answer 4

Formulate a testable Hypothesis: translate a theory in a testable hypothesis

Select the research method and design the study: figure out how to put the hypothesis to an empirical test

Collect the data

Analyze the data and draw conclusions

Report the findings

Question 5

define operational definition

Answer 5

describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable

Question 6

The two features of a scientific approach with respect to behaviour are

Answer 6

clarity and precision

avoidance of errors

Question 7

Define experiment

Answer 7

is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result

Question 8

Define independent variable

Answer 8

is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable

Question 9

Define dependent variable

Answer 9

is the variable that is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable

in this example the bridge is the independent

sex drive is the dependent

Question 10

Define The experimental group

Answer 10

consists of the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable

Question 11

Define The control group

Answer 11

consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group

Question 12

Define extraneous variables

Answer 12

are any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study

in the bridge study: high risk takers may have called the female regardless of which bridge they crossed

IF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES AFFECT THE RESULTS THEN WE CALL IT A CONFOUNDING VARIABLE

Question 13

define confounding of variables

Answer 13

occurs when 2 variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects

extraneous variable confounded with an IV hard to tell which one is affecting the DV

Question 14

Define random assignment of subjects

Answer 14

occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in the study

when experimenters distribute subjects randomly they can be reasonably confident that the groups will be similar in most ways

Question 15

Define Random sampling

Answer 15

refers to drawing a sample from a population in such a way that each member of the population has an equal chance of being part of the selected sample

Question 16

Is it possible to use more than one independent and dependent variable in a single experiment?

Answer 16

Yes

Question 17

What is central tendency?

Answer 17

used to summarize typical average score

mean

median

mode

Question 18

define The Median

Answer 18

The Median is the score that falls exactly in the center of a distribution of scores ; half the scores fall above it, half below

15,50,100 = 50
20,100 = 60 (because it’s even)
20, 100, 100 = 100

circle the two numbers in the middle and divide by two 110K is the median

think highway median - in the middle

Question 19

define The mean

Answer 19

Mean is the arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution

3 people make 15 k
2 people make 20 k
2 people make 200 k
1 person makes 300 k

mean is 98.12K

is most useful BUT is also unduly sensitive to extreme scores:

The mean tells us little without the standard deviation.

Question 20

define The mode

Answer 20

Mode is the most frequent score in a distribution

3 people make 15 K so mode is 15 K

ala mode - i.e. popular

Question 21

what happens in a symmetrical FD

Answer 21

the three measures of central tendency converge

Question 22

what happens in a negatively skewed fd

Answer 22

the median and mean are pulled down below the mode

long tail is going to the left

Question 23

what happens in a positively skewed fd

Answer 23

long tail is going to the right

Question 24

Define variability

Answer 24

refers to how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean

Question 25

Define Range

Answer 25

like a classroom of kids between the age of 14 and 3 so the range is 11 years - hard to determine what’s in the middle

Question 26

Standard Deviation

Answer 26

is an index of the amount of variability in a set of data to arrive at the mean eg 10, 15, 12, 13, 14 or 32, 1, 20, 5, 5 both have the same mean but the second has a way higher standard deviation

Question 27

Normal Distribution

Answer 27

is a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are dispersed in the population when a trait is normally distributed most scores fall near the centre of distribution (the mean)

Question 28

What are relative measures?

Answer 28

asses how people score on a trait in comparison to other people

Question 29

What is a percentile score?

Answer 29

indicates the percentage of people who score at or below a particular score if you scored at the 60th percentile on a test, 60 percent of the people score the same or below you if you’ve scored at the 10% you’ve done relatively shitty cuz you’ve only scored better than 10% of the people, meaning 90% of people scored higher than you

Question 30

define correlation coefficient

Answer 30

is a numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables which indicates

Question 31

positive correlation

Answer 31

between high school GPA and University GPA - students who tend to get high grades in HS get High Grades in Uni Measured 0.0 to 1.0

Question 32

negative correlation

Answer 32

high frequency of absences leads to low grades; so they are moving in opposite directions measured 0.0 to -1.0

Question 33

What are inferential statistics?

Answer 33

are used to interpret data and draw conclusions

Question 34

What is statistical significance?

Answer 34

is said to exist when the probability of the observed findings are due to chance is very low // low is defined as fewer than 5 chances in 100 calculated as less than 0.05 (out of 1)

Question 35

The null hypothesis

Answer 35

is the assumption in an experiment that any difference between groups is due merely to chance. When we reject the null hypothesis, we conclude that we have found statistically significant results. In other words, we can assume that any difference in results is unlikely to be due to chance.

Question 36

What is replication?

Answer 36

is the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated Helps scientists identify and purge erroneous findings sometimes leads to contradictory results empirical approach works to reconcile/explain conflicting results

Question 37

What is a meta-analysis?

Answer 37

is the combination of statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of variables effects gives researchers details regarding the consistency and predictability of an experimental effect examined in many studies that may have used different types of participants and methods

Question 38

A sample bias

Answer 38

exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn

Question 39

Placebo effect

Answer 39

occurs when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though the receive empty or fake or ineffectual treatment

Question 40

Social desirability bias

Answer 40

is a tendency to want to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself

Question 41

Response set

Answer 41

is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions some people tend to agree with nearly everything on a questionnaire

Question 42

Halo effect

Answer 42

happens when one’s overall impression spills over to the details Mia thinks I’m kind, so assumes I’m generous

Question 43

Experimental bias

Answer 43

occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained when they make apparently honest mistakes in reporting, they tend to slant towards supporting the hypothesis they can also unintentionally influence the behaviour of their subjects subtle body language suggesting a certain result

Question 44

Double blind procedure

Answer 44

a research strategy in which neither the subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups

Question 45

Define sample and population

Answer 45

sample is a collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study population is a much larger collection of animals or people (from which the sample was drawn) that researchers want to generalize about

Question 46

articles are

Answer 46

reports that describe original empirical studies written by other professionals in the field

Question 47

review articles

Answer 47

summarize and reconcile the findings of a large number of studies on a specific issue

Question 48

an abstract

Answer 48

a concise summary at the beginning of each article briefly describes hypotheses, methods, results and conclusions of the studies allowing you to determine whether an article is relevant to your interests Can be found at PsychINFO database

Question 49

Describe the standard organization of a published journal article

Answer 49

1) Abstract 2) Introduction overview 3) method describes research methods in this study 4) results stats analysis 5) discussion conclusions drawn 6) references biblio etc...

Question 50

define histogram

Answer 50

a bar graph that represents data from a FD frequency polygon is a line tracing of the squares

Question 51

scatter diagram

Answer 51

single points on the graph

Question 52

coefficient of determination

Answer 52

is the link between correlation and prediction indicates the percentage of variation in one variable that can be predicted based on the other variable so like .50 on the scale is 25 %