Designing observational studies

Question 1

What are the key issues for the design of observational research

Answer 1

The design which includes a method for recording data as well as a method for sampling data

Question 2

What is operationalisation

Answer 2

This is a way of dividing the behaviour being studied into a set of component behaviours e.g. observing a baby we can divide this into categories such as smiling crying sleeping eating et cetera

Question 3

What are behavioural categories

Answer 3

A set of component behaviours

Question 4

What is a coding frame

Answer 4

Each behaviour is given a code to make recording easier

Question 5

What is a rating scale

Answer 5

you Provide a list of behaviours or characteristics and asked observers to rate each one

Question 6

What are sampling procedures

Answer 6

A systematic method of sampling observations when it is

Question 7

What is event sampling

Answer 7

Counting the number of times a certain behaviour occurs in a target individual or individuals e.g. counting the number of times somebody smiles in a 10 minute period

Question 8

What is time sampling?

Answer 8

Recording behaviours in a given timeframe e.g. noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds. The researcher may take items in a coding frame

Question 9

What is the facial action coding system

Answer 9

It was developed by Paul Ackman and others for observing facial expressions this can be used to investigate example what expressions are shown on a person’s face when they are lying

Question 10

Give an example of participant observation

Answer 10

In the 1950s the social psychologist Leon testing the joined a cult without revealing his identity

Question 11

What is a participant observation

Answer 11

In some observations the observer is also a participant in the behaviour being observed

Question 12

What is non-participant observation

Answer 12

When the observer is not a participant in the behaviour being observed this is most common

Question 13

What it is overt observation

Answer 13

When the participant is aware of being observed and may alter their behaviour so validity is reduced

Question 14

What is covert observation

Answer 14

This increases the validity by making observations without a participants knowledge such as using one-way mirrors

Question 15

What is indirect observation

Answer 15

In many studies observations are made of data that has already been collected for example to see whether gender bias exists. These are indirect observations

Question 16

What is an example of a naturalistic observation

Answer 16

Robert Jordan and Gordon Berg heart undertook a study of black bears in the zoo in order to determine whether the presence of observers altered the animal’s behaviour i- they found a much higher activity level at Tremont zoo where the bears have more human contact. Observations were recorded every 30 seconds Through time sampling and by using a coding frame

Question 17

Do you think that Louis Therereux is an example of a participant observation

Answer 17

I would say almost but not quite – what do you think?

Question 18

Why might observations be more valid than e.g. questionnaires

Answer 18

What people say they do is often different from what they actually do

Question 19

Why does naturalistic observation have high ecological validity

Answer 19

Naturalistic observation gives a more realistic picture of spontaneous behaviour

Question 20

What is the value of observational research in a new area of research

Answer 20

It provides a means of conducting preliminary investigations to produce hypotheses for future investigations

Question 21

What other weaknesses of naturalistic observation

Answer 21

There is very little control of extraneous variables which may mean that something unknown to the observer may account for the behaviour observed

Question 22

What is observer bias

Answer 22

The Observer may see what he/she expects to see

Question 23

What are the ethical problems with observation

Answer 23

Participants don’t know they are being observed to the issues are deception and invasion of privacy

Question 24

What could be the investigator effects

Answer 24

If the participants know they are being observed they may change their behaviour

Question 25

What are the ethical issues in a naturalistic observation

Answer 25

Participants may be observed without their informed consent

Question 26

What is the ethical issue with the use of one-way mirrors

Answer 26

This involves deception or lack of informed consent

Question 27

What ever guidelines on invasion of privacy in public places?

Answer 27

Ethical guidelines generally advise that it is acceptable to observe people in public places where people expect to be seen by others - participant confidentiality and anonymity should still be protected

Question 28

How would you approve an observational design

Answer 28

I would refer it to an ethical committee

Question 29

What is one way to check reliability of an observation

Answer 29

Compare the observations made by two observers to see if they produce the same record if yes then they are reliable

Question 30

What is interrater reliability or interobserver reliability

Answer 30

The extent to which two or more observers agree

Question 31

How do you calculate inter-observer reliability?

Answer 31

A result of +.8 or more suggests good interobserver reliability and you do this by dividing the total agreements by the total number of the observations

Question 32

How do you deal with low reliability

Answer 32

Observers should be trained in the use of behavioural categories and coding frames

Question 33

What may cause observations to not be reliable or valid

Answer 33

If you behavioural categories or coding frames are flawed e.g. some observations may belong in more than one category or some behaviours may not be comfortable and then the result is that the data collected does not truly represent what was observed

Question 34

What can be the effect of observer bias

Answer 34

What someone observe is influenced by the expectations

Question 35

Why are observational studies likely to have greater ecological validity

Answer 35

Because they involve more natural behaviours

Question 36

Why might population validity be a problem

Answer 36

An example is if children from a middle-class home are the only source of children to be observed

Question 37

What does the behavioural observation unit (BEO)

Answer 37

It trains people in the use of observational techniques

Question 38

When assessing reliability of observers how can you show the results in the graph?

Answer 38

In a nursery at their Each time three observers we used, the figures were plotted on a grass in three different colours the figures represent the relative duration of a specific behaviour category expressed as a percentage of the total time. The results was a very close mean correlation

Question 39

What is content analysis

Answer 39

It is the analysis of the content of something for example a researcher might study the way men and women are represented in magazine advertisements and attempt to draw some conclusions

Question 40

Is content analysis direct or indirect observation

Answer 40

It is in direct observation because you are not observing people directly but observing them through the artefacts they produce

Question 41

How do you do content analysis

Answer 41

The process involved in conducting content analysis is similar to any observational study. The researcher has to make decisions about sampling method, method of recording data, method of representing data.

Question 42

If there is a team of researchers doing content analysis what becomes important

Answer 42

It is important to ensure that they are applying criteria in the same way by calculating interobserver or interrater reliability

Question 43

What is an example of event sampling in content analysis

Answer 43

Considerations include deciding which TV channels to include for what length of time

Question 44

What is the example of a method of representing data in content analysis

Answer 44

For example consider performing content analysis on the contents of magazines… First you identify the behavioural categories such as articles about celebrities - secondly you look through magazines and record data either by counting instances (quantitative analysis) or by dividing examples in each category (qualitative analysis)