Exam #1 chapter 1 part 1 Flashcards
(92 cards)
1
Q
the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structures
A
anatomy
2
Q
what is an example of anatomy?
A
the shape and size of bones
3
Q
what is an example of anatomy of bones?
A
the hard mineralized substance enables the bones to provide strength and support.
4
Q
studies the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood
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developmental anatomy
5
Q
a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers the changes from conception to the end of the 8th week of development
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embryology
6
Q
examines the structural features of cells
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cytology
7
Q
examines the tissues, whch are composed of cells and the materials surrouonding them
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histology
8
Q
the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope and can be approached systemically or regionally
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gross anatomy
9
Q
how is the body studied in systemic anatomy?
A
system by systsem
10
Q
how is the body studies in regional anatomy?
A
area by area
11
Q
how are systems sutdied in regional anatomy?
A
simoultanously
12
Q
involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body
A
surface anatomy
13
Q
whata is an example of surface anatomy?
A
the sternum and parts of the ribs can be seen and palpated on the front of the chest.
14
Q
the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
A
physiology
15
Q
what are the major goals when studying physiology?
A
to understand and preict the body’s responses to stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions withn a narrow range of values in constantly changing environment
16
Q
examines the processes occurring in cells
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cell physiology
17
Q
considers the functions of organ systems
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systemic physiology
18
Q
what are the 6 levels of organization that the body can be studied at?
A
1) chemical
2) cell
3) tissue
4) organ
5) organ system
6) whole organism
19
Q
basic structural and functional units of plants and animals
A
cells
20
Q
what do molecules form to combine?
A
organelles
21
Q
small structures inside cells
A
organelles
22
Q
what is an example of an organelle?
A
the nucleus and mitochondria
23
Q
an organelle that contains the cell’s hereditary information
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nucleus
24
Q
an organelle that manufacture ATP
A
mitochandria
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a molecule which cells use for energy
adenosine triphoshpate (ATP)
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composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them
tissue
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composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions
organ
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whatare some examples of organs?
the urinary bladder, heart, stomach and lung
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what is an example of an organ system?
the urinary system which consists of kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra.
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any living thing considered as a whole whether composed of one cell such as bacterium or trillions such as a human
organism
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what are the four types of tissues that the body is made up of?
1) epithelial
2) connective
3) muscle
4) nervous
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what is the most common feature of all organisms?
life
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the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment
homeostasis
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what are some homeostatic mechanisms?
sweating or shivering
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what do homeostatic mechanisms maintain?
body temperature near an ideal normal value or set point.
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what are most systems of the body regulated by that maintains homeostasis
negative-feedback
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what does negative mean in negative-feedback?
when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted
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what does the response to the original stimulus result in during negative-feedback?
deviation from the set point, becoming smaller.
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what is an example of important negative feedback mechanisms in the body?
those maintaining normal body temperature
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what are the three components that most negative-feedback mechanisms have?
1) receptor
2) control center
3) effector
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monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature
receptor
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such as part of the brain, which establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained through communication with the receptors and effetors
control center
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can adjust the value of the variable usually back toward the set point such as sweat glands
effector
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what does normal body temperature depend on?
the coordination of multiple structures
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what are the multiple structures regulated by to maintain a normal body temp?
the control center or hypothalamus in the brain
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what happens when body temp rises?
sweat glands (the effectors) produce sweat and body cools
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what happens when body temp falls?
sweat glands do no produce sweatn
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what does the stepwise process that regulates body temp involve?
the interaction of receptors, the control center and effectors.
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often there is more than one effector what must intergrate them?
the control center
50
in the case of elevated body temp what does the thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus do?
detect the increase in temp and send the information to the hypolthalamus control center
51
when the hypothalamus receives the information about the increased temp what happens next?
the hypothalamus stimulates blood vessels in the skin to relax and sweat glands to produce sweat
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after the blood vessels in the skin relax and sweat glands produce sweat in the case of an evlevated body temp, what happens?
more blood is sent to the body's surface for the radiation of heat away from the body
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in the case of the response to an elevated body temp what are the skin and blood vessels considered in this scenario?
the effectors
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once body temp returns to normal what does the control center signal?
the sweat glands to reduce sweat production and the blood vessels to constrict to their normal diameter
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if body temp drops what happens/
the control center does not stimulate sweat glands and instead the skin blood vessels constrict more than normal and blood is directed to deeper regions of the body, conserving heat in the interior of the body
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what else does the hypothalamus do when body temp drops?
stimulates shivering, quick cycles of skeletal muscle contractions which generate a great amount of heat
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what stops once the body temp returns to normal
the effectors
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in both cases of temperature rising and falling what happens with the effectors?
they do not produce their responses indefinitely and are controlled by negataive feedback
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even though homeostasis maintains normal range what can be beneficial?
deviation from usual range of values
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what is an example of it being beneficial to deviate from homeostasis?
during exercise, the normal range for blood pressure differs from the range under resting conditions and the blood pressure is significantly elevated.
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what do muscle cells require?
increased oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste products to support their heightned level of activity during exercise
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what does increased blood pressure increase during exercise ?
the delivery of blood to muscles, increasing the delivery of oxygen and nutrientsand the removal of waste products, ultimately maintaining muscle cell homeostasis
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mechanisms occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater
positive feedback
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two basic principles to remembers about negative and positive feedback
1) many disease states result from the failure of negative-feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
2) some positive-feeback mechanisms can determined detrimental instead of helpful
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what does a plane do?
divides or sections the body to make it possible to "look inside" and observe the structures
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runs vertically through the body, separating it into right and left portions
sagittal plane
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what does the term sagital really mean?
"flight of an arrow" referring to the way the bodywould be split by an arrow passing anteriorly and posteriorlly
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a saggital plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves
median plane
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runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions
transverse (horizontal) plane
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runs vertically to divide the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts
frontal (coronal) plane
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what are x-rays often used for?
to visualize a broken bone or at the dentist
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what is the major limitation of radiographs (x-rays)?
they give only flat, 2-D images of the body
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technique that uses high-frequency sound waves, which are emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over the area to be scanned. the sound waves strike internal organs and bounce back to a receiver on the skin.
ultrasound
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once a computer analyzes the pattern of reflected soundwaves what happens?
the information is transferred to a monitor to be visualized as a sonogram.
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what is one of the more recent advances in ultrasound technology?
the ability of more advanced computers to analyze changes in position through "real time" movements.
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what is ultrasound commonly used to evaluate?
the condition of the fetus during pregnancy
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computer analyzed x-ray images. a low-intensity x-ray tube is rotated through a 360-degree arc around the patient and the images are fed into a computer. the computer then consstructs the image of a "slice" through the body at the point where the x-ray beam was focused and rotated.
computed tomographic (CT) scans
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what are some computers able to do with CT scans?
to take several scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part
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one step beyond CT scanning. A 3-D radiographic image of an organ such as the brain is made and stored in a computer. then a radiopaque dye is injected into the blood and a second radiographic image is made. The first image is subtracted from the second one, greatly enhancing the differences revealed by the injected dye.
Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
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directs radio waves at a person lying iniside a large electromagnetic field. the magnetic field causes the protons of various atoms to align. when the radio wavs are turned off, the hydrogen atoms realign in accordance with the magnetic field. the time it takes to realign is different for different tissues. these differences can be analyzed by a computer to produce very clear sections through the body.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
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since we have large amounts of water in our body what does that help with during an MRI?
alignment of hydrogen atom protons
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what is DSA most commonly used for?
angioplasty
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what does MRIs detect that some CT scans can't?
it's very senstive in detecting some forms of cancer
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when cells are active, they are using energy. the energy they need is supplied by the breakdown of glucose. if radioactivity treated glucose is given to the patient, the active cells take up the glucose. As the radioactivity in the glucose decays, positively charged subatomic particles called positrons are emitted. when the positrons collide with electrons, the two particles annihilate each other and gamma rays are given off. the gamma rays can be detected, pinpointing cells that are metobolicaly active.
Positron emission tomographic (PET) scan
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what can PET scans see?
metabolic states of various tissues
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what is PET scans particularly useful in analyzing?
the brain
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the outer part of the balloon wall
parietal serous membrane
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the inner balloon wall in contact with your fist covering the organ
visceral serous membrane
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three serous membranes of the thoracic cavity
1) pericardial cavity around the heart
| 2) pleural cavity around the two lungs
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serous membrane of the abdominopelvic cavity
the peritoneal
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specialized membranes in the abdominopelvic cavity that anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach organs
mesentaries
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specialied membranes in the abdominopelvic cavity that are behind the peritoneum, this includes the kidneys, adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines and urinary bladder
retroperitoneal
