LEARNING PERSPECTIVE Flashcards
(197 cards)
1
Q
where does disagreement remain in relation to learning
A) Whether learning impacts intelligence
B) Whether learning is static or dynamic process
C) Whether learning is unified or distinct
D) Whether learning affects motivation
A
C) Whether learning is unified or distinct
2
Q
in classical conditioning, what must the first condition be
A) Voluntary responses
B) Reflexive response
C) Conscious awareness
D) Inhibition or automatic responses
A
B) Reflexive response
3
Q
what must the organism already do in classical conditioning?
a. Deliberately ignore stimuli
b. Reflexively respond to stimuli
c. Develop new stimuli-responses
d. Exhibit voluntary control over responses
A
b. Reflexively respond to stimuli
4
Q
How is a reflex described in the context of classical conditioning?
a. A random response to a stimulus
b. A learned connection between stimuli
c. An automatic response to a stimulus
d. A conscious decision to respond
A
c. An automatic response to a stimulus
5
Q
in classical conditioning what is a reflex
a. A new connection between an UR and an US
b. A voluntary response
c. An inhibitory response occuring from threat
d. An existing connection between a stimulus and response
A
d. An existing connection between a stimulus and response
6
Q
in classical conditioning, what must the second condition be
A) The stimulus must be avoided initially
B) The stimulus must be associated with a response
C) The stimulus must be presented randomly
D) The stimulus must become associated with another stimulus
A
D) The stimulus must become associated with another stimulus
7
Q
What is the characteristic of the second stimulus when it is first introduced in classical conditioning?
A) It causes an immediate response
B) It is always biologically significant
C) It is usually neutral and causes no particular response
D) It is avoided by the organism
A
C) It is usually neutral and causes no particular response
8
Q
How is the second stimulus described when initially introduced in classical conditioning?
A) It is inherently reflexive
B) It is aversive in nature
C) It is usually neutral at first
D) It always causes a specific response
A
C) It is usually neutral at first
9
Q
what can the second stimulus be in classical conditioning?
a. Anything, such as a color, sound, object, or person
b. Only biologically significant stimuli
c. Only stimuli with aversive characteristics
d. Only stimuli that are reflexive in nature
A
a. Anything, such as a color, sound, object, or person
10
Q
in classical conditioning, what occurs in the first stage situation
A) Only a neutral stimulus exists
B) Only a reflex exists
C) Both a neutral stimulus and a reflex exist
D) The conditioned response occurs
A
B) only a reflex exists
11
Q
In classical conditioning, what is the first stage described in the information?
a. The stage of initial response
b. The situation after conditioning
c. The situation before conditioning
d. The stage of advanced conditioning
A
c. The situation before conditioning
12
Q
What term is used to refer to the stimulus in the first stage of classical conditioning?
a. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
b. Unconditioned stimulus (US)
c. Neutral stimulus (NS)
d. Reinforcement stimulus (RS)
A
b. Unconditioned stimulus (US)
13
Q
what is the response called in the first stage of classical conditioning?
a. Conditioned response (CR)
b. Unconditioned response (UR)
c. Neutral response (NR)
d. Reinforcement response (RR)
A
b. Unconditioned response (UR)
14
Q
What does the term “unconditional” mean in the context of classical conditioning?
a. The response occurs only in specific conditions
b. The response is voluntary
c. No special condition is required for the response to occur
d. The response is limited to certain stimuli
A
c. No special condition is required for the response to occur
15
Q
What is the second stage of the classical conditioning procedure
A) The conditioning of a reflexive response
B) The conditioning of neutral stimuli
C) The development of voluntary responses
D) The elimination of responses
A
B) The conditioning of neutral stimuli
16
Q
when does the neutral stimulus occur in the conditioning stage
A) Along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus (US)
B) Before the unconditioned response (UR)
C) After the unconditioned response (UR)
D) After the elimination of the unconditioned stimulus (US)
A
A) Along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus (US)
17
Q
what is the neutral stimulus termed after conditioning
A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
B) Conditional stimulus (CS)
C) Conditioned response (CR)
D) Neutral response (NR)
A
B) conditional stimulus (CS)
18
Q
once a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) when does a response occur
A) When the CS is eliminated
B) Only when the US is present
C) in the presence of the conditioned stimulus
D) In the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US)
A
B) Only when the US is present
19
Q
How is the conditioned stimulus (CS) distinguished from the neutral stimulus?
a. The CS always produces a conditioned response
b. The CS occurs after the unconditioned response
c. The CS is presented along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus
d. The CS is unrelated to the unconditioned stimulus
A
c. The CS is presented along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus
20
Q
what response occurs when the US and the CS are paired frequently
A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
B) Conditional stimulus (CS)
C) Conditioned response (CR)
D) Neutral response (NR)
A
C) Conditioned response (CR)
21
Q
what is the distinction between a conditioned response and an unconditioned response
A) they both produce the same response
B) the unconditioned response is less intense
C) the conditioned response is less intense
D) the conditioned response is more intense
A
C) the conditioned response is less intense
22
Q
what are similarities in the conditioned and unconditioned responses
A) Both are learned behaviors
B) the conditioned response quality will have the associated response to the unconditioned response
C) They occur in different contexts
D) They are mediated by different neural pathways
A
B) the conditioned response quality will have the associated response to the unconditioned response
23
Q
In classical conditioning, what is the method suggested to determine whether conditioning has taken place?
a) By reinforcing the CS
b) By presenting the CS with the US
c) By eliminating the CS from the conditioning process
d) By presenting the CS by itself, without the US
A
d) By presenting the CS by itself, without the US
24
Q
In classical conditioning, what is the significance of presenting the CS without the US?
a) To reinforce the CS
b) To assess the strength of the UR
c) To determine the presence of a conditioned response
d) To test whether conditioning has occurred
A
d) To test whether conditioning has occurred
25
If there is no reaction to the CS alone in classical conditioning, what does it suggest?
a) The CS has become a conditioned stimulus
b) Conditioning has occurred successfully
c) Extinction is taking place
d) There has been no conditioning
d) There has been no conditioning
26
under what circumstance might classical conditioning occur with only one pairing?
a) When the CS is presented multiple times
b) When the UR is weak
c) When the US is very strong, causing a very intense UR
d) When the CR is delayed
under what circumstance might classical conditioning occur with only one pairing?
27
why might cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy develop strong CRs after only one exposure?
a) Because the chemotherapy medication is a weak US
b) Because the patients are resistant to conditioning
c) Because the patients have a weak UR
d) Because the chemotherapy medication causes very intense nausea, creating a strong UR
d) Because the chemotherapy medication causes very intense nausea, creating a strong UR
28
an event in which a former CS now acts as a US in a new instance of conditioning
a) Higher-order conditioning
b) Extinction
c) Spontaneous recovery
d) Generalization
a) Higher-order conditioning
29
What does the CS–CR combination act like once conditioning has taken place in classical conditioning?
a) A voluntary response
b) Any other reflex
c) A conscious decision
d) An inhibitory response
b) Any other reflex
30
How is classical conditioning typically portrayed
a) As a high-level cognitive process
b) As a voluntary decision-making process
c) As a low-level process
d) As a conscious awareness exercise
c) As a low-level process
31
what is the primary mechanism in classical conditioning for spreading a response from one stimulus to another?
a) The strength of the response
b) The conscious awareness of stimuli
c) The close proximity in time of stimuli
d) The voluntary control of responses
c) The close proximity in time of stimuli
32
What is the common perception of classical conditioning in terms of its level of cognitive involvement?
a) High-level cognitive process
b) Low-level process
c) Intermediate-level process
d) Unrelated to cognitive processes
b) Low-level process
33
According to Rescorla, what is the key factor in classical conditioning?
a) The proximity of stimuli in time and place
b) The voluntary control of responses
c) The information one stimulus provides about the other
d) The conscious awareness of stimuli
c) The information one stimulus provides about the other
34
How does Rescorla characterize the learning process in classical conditioning?
a) As a process of conscious decision-making
b) As a representation of the world based on temporal associations
c) As a process of surprise when organisms are "surprised" by something happening to them
d) As a process of automatic responses to stimuli
c) As a process of surprise when organisms are "surprised" by something happening to them
35
According to Rescorla, when do organisms learn in classical conditioning?
a) When they consciously decide to learn
b) When stimuli occur close in time
c) When they are "surprised" by something happening to them
d) When they voluntarily control their responses
c) When they are "surprised" by something happening to them
36
in Robert Rescorla view, what makes conditioning occur
A) association in time and place
B) the information one stimulus gives about the other
C) how intense the CS is
D) their experiences of relations between parts of the world to represent reality
B) the information one stimulus gives about the other
37
Classical conditioning is usually portrayed as a low-level process, what does this mean
A) a response gets spread from one stimulus to another because they occur close in time
B) organisms use their experiences of relations between parts of the world to represent reality
C) the information one stimulus gives about the other causes conditioning
D) organisms learn only when they’re “surprised” by something that happens to them
A) a response gets spread from one stimulus to another because they occur close in time
38
How does Rescorla characterize learning in classical conditioning?
a) As a process of conscious decision-making
b) As a representation of the world based on temporal associations
c) As a process of aligning the organism's representation of the world with the actual state of the world
d) As a process of automatic responses to stimuli
c) As a process of aligning the organism's representation of the world with the actual state of the world
39
as a result of organisms learning only when they are surprised, what can happen when two stimuli are experienced together
A) a conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented with an unconditioned stimulus always produces a conditioned response
B) a conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented with an unconditioned stimulus can become redundant and not cause a conditioned response
C) presentation of a CS and US without prior conditioning pairings will not elicit a conditioned response
D) none of the above
B) a conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented with an unconditioned stimulus can become redundant and not cause a conditioned response
40
Rescorla (1988) argued against classical conditioning being a slow process and says learning commonly occurs in
A) 10 trials
B) 20 trials
C) five to six trials
D 1 trial
C) five to six trials
41
what is the process of generalisation
a) Responding only to identical stimuli
b) Responding in a similar way to similar-but-not-identical stimuli
c) Responding exclusively to the conditioned stimulus (CS)
d) Ignoring all stimuli except the unconditioned stimulus (US)
b) Responding in a similar way to similar-but-not-identical stimuli
42
in generalisation, what would occur if stimuli become more different from the initial CS
A) forgetting
B) discrimination
C) habituation
D) extinction
B) discrimination
43
what occurs when a CS appears repeatedly without the US
A) forgetting
B) discrimination
C) habituation
D) extinction
D) extinction
44
what word is used when a conditioned response becomes weaker
A) forgetting
B) discrimination
C) habituation
D) extinction
D) extinction
45
when a behavior that is believed to be extinct unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period of rest or lessened response
A) remembering
B) spontaneous recovery
C) emotional conditioning
D) instant recovery
B) spontaneous recovery
46
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
a) The immediate extinction of a conditioned behavior
b) The gradual return of a conditioned behavior over an extended period
c) The unexpected and rapid return of a conditioned behavior after a period of rest or reduced response
d) The permanent cessation of a conditioned behavior
c) The unexpected and rapid return of a conditioned behavior after a period of rest or reduced response
47
what is believed about classical conditioning leaving a permanent record in the nervous system
A) it has no impact on the NS
B) Its effects can be erased
C) Its effects can be muted
D) It has a temporary effect on the nervous system
C) Its effects can be muted
48
According to current perspectives, what is extinction in classical conditioning often considered to be?
a) The erasure of the original conditioning
b) The creation of new conditioning for "no-response" responses to the CS
c) A temporary suppression of the conditioned response
d) The reinforcement of the unconditioned stimulus (US)
b) The creation of new conditioning for "no-response" responses to the CS
49
In classical conditioning involving humans, what often characterizes the responses?
a) The absence of emotional qualities
b) Reflexive reactions with emotional qualities
c) Voluntary responses with cognitive qualities
d) Unconscious responses with physical qualities
b) Reflexive reactions with emotional qualities
50
What term is sometimes used to describe classical conditioning in which the conditioned responses (CRs) are emotional reactions?
a) Volitional conditioning
b) Cognitive conditioning
c) Emotional conditioning
d) Physical conditioning
c) Emotional conditioning
51
According to Andrew Elliot and colleagues, what emotional reactions may be evoked by the color red in academic contexts?
a) Positive emotions
b) Neutral emotions
c) Negative emotions
d) Cognitive emotions
c) Negative emotions
52
According to the learning view on personality, how are people's likes and dislikes believed to develop?
a) Through genetic inheritance
b) Through conscious decision-making
c) Through the conditioning of emotional responses
d) Through cognitive processes
c) Through the conditioning of emotional responses
53
to what does the principle of generalization apply?
a) Only to neutral stimuli
b) Only to inanimate objects
c) Only to specific environments
d) All kinds of stimuli, including other people
d) All kinds of stimuli, including other people
54
what role can emotional conditioning play in personality development?
a) A minor role
b) No role at all
c) A major role
d) An irrelevant role
c) A major role
55
In classical conditioning, what is the neutral stimulus (CS) paired with to develop attitudes?
a. Unconditional stimulus (US)
b. Emotional reaction (UR)
c. Unconditional response (UR)
d. Attitude object
b. Emotional reaction (ER)
56
How does an attitude develop when an attitude object is paired with an emotion-arousing stimulus?
A) The emotion-arousing stimulus becomes the attitude object.
B) The emotion-arousing stimulus loses its emotional impact.
C) The neutral stimulus becomes an unconditioned stimulus.
D) The attitude object comes to evoke the emotion itself.
D) The attitude object comes to evoke the emotion itself.
57
What is a key difference between instrumental conditioning and classical conditioning?
A) Classical conditioning is passive, while instrumental conditioning is active.
B) Classical conditioning requires active participation, while instrumental conditioning is passive.
C) Both classical and instrumental conditioning are passive processes.
D) Both classical and instrumental conditioning require active engagement.
A) Classical conditioning is passive, while instrumental conditioning is active.
58
Why is classical conditioning considered passive?
A) It involves voluntary actions.
B) It requires active participation.
C) Reflexes occur without the need for any action.
D) It is a conscious and intentional process.
C) Reflexes occur without the need for any action.
59
In instrumental conditioning, what is emphasized in contrast to classical conditioning?
A) Passive observation
B) Reflexive reactions
C) Active participation
D) Unconscious processes
C) Active participation
60
If a behavior is followed by a better (more satisfying) state of affairs, the behavior is more likely to be done again later in a similar situation
A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) associative learning
D) backward conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
61
This principle accounts for the fact that (over time and experiences) some behaviors emerge from the many possible behaviors as habitual responses that occur in specific situations.
A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) associative learning
D) backward conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
62
Thorndike's term which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.
A) instrumental conditioning
B) law of effect
C) reflexive reactions
D) passive observation
B) law of effect
63
What is the key outcome that results from the application of the law of effect?
A) A change in reflexive reactions
B) A change in the likelihood of future action
C) The development of classical conditioning
D) The extinction of conditioned responses
B) A change in the likelihood of future action
63
What does the law of effect, as deduced by E. L. Thorndike, involve?
A) A link between a stimulus and a response
B) Linking an action, an outcome, and a change in the likelihood of future action
C) Classical conditioning principles
D) Passive observation of reflexive reactions
B) Linking an action, an outcome, and a change in the likelihood of future action
64
How does the law of effect differ from classical conditioning?
A) It involves passive observation.
B) It focuses on unconscious processes.
C) It emphasizes the link between actions, outcomes, and future actions.
D) It relies on reflexes without any conscious involvement.
C) It emphasizes the link between actions, outcomes, and future actions.
65
According to E. L. Thorndike's Law of Effect, what does it explain about behavior?
A) It explains the complexity of behavior in any given situation.
B) It outlines the variety of potential acts in a situation.
C) It accounts for the regularities in behavior based on satisfying outcomes.
D) It focuses on the occasional occurrence of acts.
C) It accounts for the regularities in behavior based on satisfying outcomes.
66
In a given situation, why do some acts occur with great regularity, according to Thorndike's Law of Effect?
A) Due to random chance
B) Because they are inherently satisfying
C) Because they are followed by dissatisfying outcomes
D) Based on classical conditioning principles
B) Because they are inherently satisfying
67
What distinguishes acts that occur with great regularity, others that happen once and disappear, and ones that only occur occasionally
A) Their inherent complexity
B) The frequency of their occurrence
C) The outcomes following the act
D) Their association with classical conditioning
C) The outcomes following the act
68
How does Thorndike's Law of Effect contribute to understanding behavior?
A) By emphasizing the rarity of certain acts
B) By providing a simple and profound explanation for behavior regularities
C) By focusing on the role of classical conditioning in behavior
D) By ignoring the influence of outcomes on behavior
B) By providing a simple and profound explanation for behavior regularities
69
The ordering of a person’s potential responses by their likelihood
A) reinforcement hierarchy
B) routine hierarchy
C) habit hierarchy
D) none of the above
C) habit hierarchy
70
How does a habit hierarchy evolve, according to Miller and Dollard (1941)?
A) It is determined by random chance.
B) It is based on the inherent complexity of behaviors.
C) The order of responses derives from prior conditioning.
D) It is influenced solely by classical conditioning principles.
C) The order of responses derives from prior conditioning.
71
What determines the likelihood of responses in a habit hierarchy?
A) The inherent satisfaction of responses
B) Random shifts in the form of the hierarchy
C) The complexity of behavioral patterns
D) Prior conditioning and the satisfaction of outcomes
D) Prior conditioning and the satisfaction of outcomes
72
Why are some responses more likely (higher on the hierarchy) than others?
A) Due to random chance
B) Because of their inherent complexity
C) Because they are often followed by more satisfying outcomes
D) Based on classical conditioning principles
C) Because they are often followed by more satisfying outcomes
73
How does the form of the habit hierarchy change over time?
A) Randomly
B) Due to inherent complexities in responses
C) As a result of shifts in outcome patterns
D) Independent of the satisfaction of outcomes
C) As a result of shifts in outcome patterns
74
what does the term primary reinforcer denote
A) A secondary reinforcer
B) An artificial reward
C) A punishment stimulus
D) Diminishing a biological need
D) Diminishing a biological need
75
what has acquired reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer (through classical conditioning) or by virtue of the fact that it can be used to get primary reinforcers
A) punisher
B) primary conditioning
C) secondary reinforcer
D) conditioning
C) secondary reinforcer
76
Punishment that are intrinsically aversive are known as
A) Extrinsic punishment
B) Secondary punisher
C) Negative reinforcement
D) Primary punisher
D) Primary punisher
77
discrimination when applied to instrumental conditioning results from
A) variations in prior reinforcement or punishment
B) generalisation
C) weakening of conditioned responses
D) turning behaviour on and off
A) variations in prior reinforcement or punishment
78
A cue that controls the occurrence of behavior.
A) extinction
B) generalisation
C) discriminative stimulus
D) reinforcer
C) discriminative stimulus
79
when does a stimulus become a discriminative stimulus
A) When it is consistently associated with positive reinforcement
B) In the presence or absence of a specific stimulus
C) When it is presented intermittently
D) Only during extinction trials
B) in the presence or absence of a stimulus
80
if a stimulus is present and an action is always followed by a reinforcer, but when the stimulus is absent and the same action is never followed by a reinforcer, what occurs
A) extinction
B) generalisation
C) stimulus discrimination
D) reinforcement
C) stimulus discrimination
81
a habit hierarchy that shifts in relation to discriminative stimuli, changes due to
A) reinforcement schedules
B) alterations in environment
C) change in cues
D) variations in response rate
C) change in cues
82
Behavior that’s cued by discriminative stimuli is said to be
A) Under stimulus control
B) Inhibited by external cues
C) Spontaneous
D) Unpredictable in nature
A) Under stimulus control
83
when will a person behave consistently across time and circumstances
a) Frequent changes in discriminative stimuli
b) Consistent changes in environmental settings
c) Similarities of discriminative stimuli across times and circumstances
d) Variability of action tendencies
c) Similarities of discriminative stimuli across times and circumstances
84
What does the principle of generalization offer conditioning theorists a way to talk about?
a) Behavioral variability
b) Trait-like qualities
c) Inconsistent behaviors
d) Environmental changes
b) Trait-like qualities
85
what does behavioral consistency, as observed by an outsider, depend on?
a) Variability of environments
b) Dissimilarities of discriminative stimuli
c) Similarities of environments
d) Trait-like tendencies
c) Similarities of environments
86
when does extinction in instrumental conditioning occur
A) When a reinforcer follows the behavior when done over and over
B) When a behavior that once led to a reinforcer no longer does so
C) When a behavior is inconsistently reinforced
D) When a behavior leads to punishment
B) when a behavior that once led to a reinforcer no longer does so
87
in instrumental conditioning, what are variations in frequency and pattern collectively referred to as?
a) Variable conditioning
b) Reinforcement inconsistencies
c) Schedules of reinforcement
d) Variable patterns
c) Schedules of reinforcement
88
What term is often used to describe the phenomenon where even infrequent reinforcement leads to high rates of behavior over time?
a) The extinction effect
b) The reinforcement lag
c) The partial reinforcement effect
d) The variability effect
c) The partial reinforcement effect
89
what is the partial reinforcement effect
A) The complete absence of reinforcement
B) The rapid extinction of behavior
C) The fact that a behavior acquired through partial reinforcement is resistant to extinction
D) The tendency for reinforcement to be more effective than punishment
C) The fact that a behavior acquired through partial reinforcement is resistant to extinction
90
what evidence challenges the intuitive belief about reinforcement in instrumental conditioning?
a) The unpredictable nature of reinforcers
b) The simultaneous reinforcement of multiple behaviors
c) The delayed effects of reinforcers
d) The exclusive focus on particular acts
b) The simultaneous reinforcement of multiple behaviors
91
What is suggested by the evidence that reinforcement can change abstract qualities of behavior?
a) Reinforcement is ineffective
b) Reinforcement acts only at a superficial level
c) Reinforcers may impact various levels of abstraction
d) Reinforcers only influence specific behaviors
c) Reinforcers may impact various levels of abstraction
92
second generation learning theories focus on
A) how attitudes and preferences can derive from emotional reactions
B) how behavior tendencies strengthen and fade as a result of good and bad outcomes
C) mental events and social aspects of learning
D) aspects of behavior that seem obvious outside the lab
C) mental events and social aspects of learning
93
How is self-reinforcement defined
a) Approval or disapproval from others
b) Reacting to one's own behavior with approval
c) External reinforcement from the environment
d) Punishment from others
b) Reacting to one's own behavior with approval
94
What role does internal self-reinforcement and self-punishment play in social–cognitive learning theories?
a) No significant role
b) It is the central component
c) It complements external reinforcement
d) It contradicts behavior change theories
c) It complements external reinforcement
95
What does vicarious emotional arousal, or empathy, involve?
a) Experiencing the same emotion as someone else, usually more intensely
b) Observing emotions without personal involvement
c) Feeling concern for someone else's suffering
d) Experiencing the same emotion as someone else, usually less intensely
d) Experiencing the same emotion as someone else, usually less intensely
96
How is empathy distinguished from sympathy
a) Empathy involves more intense emotions
b) Sympathy is an indirect emotional experience
c) Empathy is concern for someone else's suffering
d) Sympathy is a feeling of concern for someone else's suffering
d) Sympathy is a feeling of concern for someone else's suffering
97
how does experiencing vicarious emotional arousal contribute to learning
A) It is the primary form of learning
B) it directly constitutes learning
C) creates an opportunity for learning
D) It is unrelated to the learning process
C) creates an opportunity for learning
98
Conditioning in which the unconditioned response occurs via empathy.
A) vicarious classical conditioning
B) Vicarious emotional arousal
C) Vicarious reinforcement
D) self reinforcement
A) vicarious classical conditioning
99
how does vicarious classical conditioning contribute to learning
A) If you observe someone do something that's followed by reinforcement, you become more likely to do the same thing yourself.
B) Conditioning in which the unconditioned response occurs via empathy
C) Observing someone else's classical conditioning without any personal involvement
D) Learning through direct experience and trial-and-error learning
B) Conditioning in which the unconditioned response occurs via empathy
100
What term is used to describe an event where vicarious emotional arousal leads to classical conditioning?
a) Emotional conditioning
b) Vicarious reinforcement
c) Observational conditioning
d) Vicarious classical conditioning
d) Vicarious classical conditioning
101
How is vicarious classical conditioning related to vicarious emotional arousal?
a) It inhibits emotional arousal
b) It is unrelated to emotional arousal
c) It is a byproduct of emotional arousal
d) It diminishes the potential for emotional arousal
c) It is a byproduct of emotional arousal
102
If you observe someone do something that’s followed by reinforcement, you become more likely to do the same thing yourself
A) vicarious classical conditioning
B) vicarious punishment
C) vicarious reinforcement
D) vicarious emotional arousal
C) vicarious reinforcement
103
acceptance, smiles, hugs, praise, approval, interest, and attention from others are collectively known as
A) vicarious reinforcement
B) expectancy outcomes
C) self reinforcers
D) social reinforcers
D) social reinforcers
104
Social–cognitive learning theories emphasize
A) The role of genetic factors in shaping behavior
B) The influence of unconscious processes on behavior
C) The impact of environmental stimuli on behavior
D) That people's acts are determined by cognitions about potential outcomes of their behavior
D) that people’s acts are determined by cognitions about potential outcomes of their behavior
105
what variables influence the delay of gratification
A) self reinforcement
B) vicarious emotions
C) reinforcement & punishment
D) self control & modeling
D) self control & modeling
106
when it is said that vicarious reinforcement develops an expectancy, what does this refer to
A) An immediate response to reinforcement
B) An inherent desire for reinforcement
C) A tendency to avoid reinforcement
D) A mental model of links between actions and reinforcers
D) A mental model of links between actions and reinforcers
107
what is the term used to describe when vicarious reinforcement develops a mental model of link from action to an expected outcome
A) reinforcing outcome
B) outcome expectancy
C) expectancy outcome
D) outcome reinforcer
B) outcome expectancy
108
what did Bandura say about the role of reinforcers in contributing to expectancies
A) They reduce the significance of outcomes
B) They provide information about effective actions and outcomes
C) They offer the potential for future motivational states through anticipation
D) They decrease the potential for future motivational states
B) They provide information about effective actions and outcomes
109
what did Bandura say about the role of reinforcers in the potential for future motivational states?
A) They reduce the significance of outcomes
B) They provide information about effective actions and outcomes
C) They offer the potential for future motivational states through anticipation
D) Reinforcers diminish the importance of future states
C) They offer the potential for future motivational states through anticipation
110
confidence in having the ability to carry out a desired action is what Bandura termed
A) Knowledge expectancy
B) Efficacy expectancy
C) Action expectancy
D) Outcome expectancy
B) Efficacy expectancy
111
what did Bandura (1977) argue about people with problems and their knowledge of actions?
a) They lack knowledge of effective actions
b) They generally know what actions are needed to reach desired outcomes
c) They are not aware of the outcomes they want
d) They rely solely on clinical experience for knowledge
b) They generally know what actions are needed to reach desired outcomes
112
According to Bandura, what does therapy achieve when it is successful?
a) It diminishes the sense of efficacy
b) It eliminates the need for efficacy
c) It restores the person's sense of efficacy
d) It has no impact on efficacy
c) It restores the person's sense of efficacy
113
what have more recent research found in relation to conditioning of an unconditioned stimulus
A) A weakening of the conditioned response over time
B) A shift in the conditioned stimulus preference
C) The role of unconscious processes
D) The role of awareness or valence
D) The role of awareness or valence
114
in a viewpoint that takes a middle ground on classical conditioning, one mode of learning acquires what might be thought of as an “actuarial” record of experiences, what does this refer to
A) Ignoring the processing of experiences
B) Totaling all associations across all instances of experience
C) a generation of expectancies
D) Developing a predictive model
B) Totaling all associations across all instances of experience
115
what type of learning required two people to be involved in the process
A) observational learning
B) vicarious learning
C) associative learning
D) backward conditioning
A) observational learning
116
for an event to represent observational learning, what must occur
A) The behavior should be one the observer has previously done
B) The behavior should be one the observer doesn’t already know
C) The observer should have prior knowledge of the event
D) The event should be familiar to the observer
B) the behavior should be one the observer doesn’t already know
117
When does observational learning occur
a) It occurs in adulthood
b) It occurs during the first year of life
c) It starts in adolescence
d) It is limited to specific age groups
b) It occurs during the first year of life
118
what is the importance of observational learning
a) Observational learning is insignificant
b) Observational learning is only relevant in specific situations
c) Observational learning allows for quick absorption of substantial information
d) Observational learning is irrelevant to information processing
c) Observational learning allows for quick absorption of substantial information
119
what is a significant advantage of observational learning?
a) It slows down the learning process
b) It limits the amount of information one can acquire
c) It allows people to pack huge amounts of information into their minds quickly
d) It hinders the retention of information
c) It allows people to pack huge amounts of information into their minds quickly
120
What is a key requirement for observational learning,
a) The observer should avoid paying attention to the model
b) The observer must focus on irrelevant aspects of the model's behavior
c) The observer must pay attention to the model
d) Observers can learn without paying attention to the model
c) The observer must pay attention to the model
121
what are the consequence of not paying attention to the right aspect of the model's behavior?
a) It enhances memory retention
b) It inhibits the encoding of the behavior for memory
c) It makes the behavior easily forgettable
d) It has no impact on the learning process
b) It inhibits the encoding of the behavior for memory
122
What is the role of attention in the encoding of the model's behavior for observational learning?
a) Attention is irrelevant to the encoding process
b) Attention inhibits the encoding of the behavior
c) Attention is necessary for well-encoded memories
d) Attention does not influence memory retention
c) Attention is necessary for well-encoded memories
123
what are the four categories of variables that influence observational learning and performance
A) Motivation, reinforcement, punishment, attention
B) Attention for Encoding, retention, production and performance
C) Sensation, perception, memory, decision-making
D) Cognitive, emotional, social, behavioral
B) Attention for Encoding, retention, production and performance
124
the use of imagery, language as an encoding strategy and mental rehearsal to keep in memory relates to what variable that influence observational learning
A) Encoding
B) Retention
C) Production
D) Performance
B) Retention
125
the characteristics of the model, the behaviour and the observer relates to what variable that influence observational learning
A) Attention for encoding
B) Retention
C) Production
D) Performance
A) Attention for encoding
126
an observer's prior capacity to produce responses, experience with prior behaviour and components of behavior relates to what variable that influence observational learning
A) Encoding
B) Retention
C) Production
D) Performance
C) Production
127
consequences to the model and to the observer relates to what variable that influence observational learning
A) Encoding
B) Retention
C) Production
D) Performance
D) Performance
128
the variable of attention as influencing observational learning has which of the following implications
A) A consistent and direct relationship between all variables
B) Observational learning will work better with some models than others
C) Limited applicability in real-world scenarios
D) The exclusion of reinforcement in the learning process
B) Observational learning will work better with some models than others
129
which of the following is an implication of the use of attention in observational learning
A) attention can limit ones ability to model the behaviour
B) attention will always produce encoding of acts
C) some acts will more likely be encoded than others
D) Attention has no impact on observational learning
C) some acts will more likely be encoded than others
130
what are two strategies of encoding that predominate in observational learning
A) imaginal coding and verbal coding
B) elaborative coding and visual coding
C) acoustic coding and verbal coding
D) semantic coding and visual coding
A) imaginal coding and verbal coding
131
what is influenced by self-esteem and optimism?
a) Perceptions of inefficacy
b) Perceptions of external control
c) Perceptions of efficacy
d) Perceptions of pessimism
c) Perceptions of efficacy
132
creating images or mental pictures of what you’re observing is what sort of coding in memory
A) verbal coding
B) mental coding
C) imaginal coding
D) visual coding
C) imaginal coding
133
creating a description to yourself of what you’re observing g is what sort of coding in memory
A) verbal coding
B) mental coding
C) imaginal coding
D) visual coding
A) verbal coding
134
in observational learning, what needs to occur after an action is in memory in order for an action to occur
A) Acquiring the necessary movements to produce the action.
B) Translation of observation into production.
C) Forgetting the observed action.
D) Reinforcement of the observational learning process.
B) translation of observation into production
135
To know whether observational learning will result in behavior, what do we need to know
A) what outcome the person expects the behavior to lead to
B) whether they have prior experience with the behaviour or not
C) if they are paying attention to the behaviour being modeled
D) if they can perform the behaviour in the necessary steps
A) what outcome the person expects the behavior to lead to
135
in contrast to performance, acquisition refers to
A) Imitation of the model's behavior spontaneously
B) Being able to demonstrate actions remembered correctly
C) The process of learning the behavior by observing the model
D) The inability to recall actions accurately
B) being able to demonstrate actions remembered correctly
136
what is the specific outcome of vicarious reinforcement on acquired behaviors?
a) It diminishes the likelihood of spontaneous behaviors
b) It increases the observer's reliance on external reinforcement
c) It enhances the spontaneous performance of acquired behaviors
d) It only affects behaviors acquired through direct reinforcement
c) It enhances the spontaneous performance of acquired behaviors
137
what is the effect of vicarious reinforcement on the spontaneous performance of acquired behaviors?
a) It has no effect
b) It diminishes the effect of direct reinforcement
c) It is the same as any instance of vicarious reinforcement
d) It is unrelated to observational learning
c) It is the same as any instance of vicarious reinforcement
138
what is the similarity between the effect of vicarious reinforcement on behavior and any instance of vicarious reinforcement?
a) They have opposite effects
b) They are unrelated to each other
c) They both enhance the spontaneous performance of behaviors
d) They diminish the likelihood of behavior
c) They both enhance the spontaneous performance of behaviors
139
what does the effect of vicarious reinforcement on spontaneous behaviors reflect?
a) It reflects the observer's inability to learn from observation
b) It reflects vicarious emotional learning
c) It reflects vicarious instrumental learning
d) It reflects the need for direct reinforcement
c) It reflects vicarious instrumental learning
140
, what is the influence of reinforcement to the model on the acquisition of behavioral potential?
a) Reinforcement to the model enhances behavioral potential acquisition
b) Reinforcement to the model diminishes behavioral potential acquisition
c) Reinforcement to the model has no influence on behavioral potential acquisition
d) Reinforcement to the model only affects observational learning
c) Reinforcement to the model has no influence on behavioral potential acquisition
141
what role does reinforcement to the model play in the acquisition of behavioral potential?
a) It is the sole determinant of behavioral potential
b) It enhances the effectiveness of observational learning
c) It has no influence on the acquisition of behavioral potential
d) It diminishes the observer's ability to acquire behavioral potential
c) It has no influence on the acquisition of behavioral potential
142
why are observational learning and vicarious instrumental learning distinct processes.
A) vicarious reinforcement influences whether people spontaneously do behaviors they’ve acquired by observation, while reinforcement to the model has no influence on acquisition of the behavioral potential
B) observational learning influences whether people spontaneously do behaviors they’ve acquired by observation, while vicarious reinforcement to the model has no influence on acquisition of the behavioral potential
C) vicarious reinforcement comes into play after the initial acquisition, while observational learning comes into play before the initial acquisition
D) Observational learning and vicarious instrumental learning have the same underlying mechanisms
A) vicarious reinforcement influences whether people spontaneously do behaviors they’ve acquired by observation, while reinforcement to the model has no influence on acquisition of the behavioral potential
143
what types of models can be involved in observational learning?
a) Only live models
b) Only symbolic models
c) Both live models and symbolic models
d) Neither live nor symbolic models
c) Both live models and symbolic models
144
TV and in movies, magazines, books, video games, are what types of models
A) distinctive models
B) symbolic models
C) direct models
D) live models
B) symbolic models
145
the actions symbolic models portray—and the patterns of reinforcement around the actions—can have a big impact on
A) acquisition and production
B) attention and retention
C) production and retention
D) acquisition and performance
D) acquisition and performance
146
people who observe innovative aggressive techniques acquire the techniques as behavior potentials by
A) observational learning
B) direct reinforcement
C) conditional learning
D) vicarious reinforcement
A) observational learning
147
observing violence that’s condoned or even rewarded helps create the sense that aggression is
A) A behavior to be avoided at all costs
B) An appropriate way to deal with disagreements
C) A maladaptive response to conflict
D) A behavior that leads to negative consequences
B) An appropriate way to deal with disagreements
148
what type of reinforcement increases the likelihood that viewers will use aggression to deal with disagreements
A) observational learning
B) direct reinforcement
C) conditional learning
D) vicarious reinforcement
D) vicarious reinforcement
149
why is aggression linked more closely to reinforcement than to punishment in the media
A) punishment usually comes late in the story, after a lot of short-term reinforcement.
B) Reinforcement is more appealing to viewers, creating a stronger association with aggressive behavior.
C) Media producers intentionally avoid depicting punishment for aggression.
D) Punishment is portrayed as ineffective in deterring aggression in the media.
A) punishment usually comes late in the story, after a lot of short-term reinforcement.
150
why is aggression linked more closely to reinforcement than to punishment
A) Aggressive actions are often met with immediate punishment, discouraging reinforcement.
B) The actions of the heroes are usually also aggressive, and they are highly reinforced.
C) Reinforcement is rarely depicted in media, making it less influential in shaping aggressive behavior.
D) Punishment is shown to be more effective in deterring aggression in media narratives
B) The actions of the heroes are usually also aggressive, and they are highly reinforced.
151
what does exposure to repeated violence do
A) Desensitizes observers
B) Increases empathy in viewers
C) Encourages prosocial behavior
D) Amplifies sensitivity to violent stimuli
A) Desensitizes observers
152
Conditioning-Based Approaches to assessment usually measure what
A) expectancies
B) situations
C) covert behaviour
D) affectivity
D) affectivity
153
When you experience an intense emotion, changes take place in your body what view emphasises assessment of this
A) Conditioning-Based Approaches
B) Social–Cognitive Approaches
C) Behavioural approaches
D) all of the above
A) Conditioning-Based Approaches
154
physiological assessment is a technique used in what approach in the learning perspective
A) Conditioning-Based Approaches
B) Social–Cognitive Approaches
C) Behavioural approaches
D) all of the above
A) Conditioning-Based Approache
155
behavioral assessment is a technique used in what approach in the learning perspective
A) Conditioning-Based Approaches
B) Social–Cognitive Approaches
C) Behavioural approaches
D) all of the above
A) Conditioning-Based Approaches
156
a conditioning-Based Approach to assessment which focuses on the assessment of emotional responses
A) behavioral assessment
B) physiological assessment
C) self-report devices
D) affect assessment
B) physiological assessment
157
a conditioning-Based Approach to assessment which entails observing overt behavior in specific situations
A) behavioral assessment
B) physiological assessment
C) self-report devices
D) social assessment
A) behavioral assessment
158
This technique can be applied to assess what kinds of activities people undertake, for how long, and in what patterns.
A) behavioral assessment
B) physiological assessment
C) self-report devices
D) social assessment
A) behavioral assessment
159
what are some of the variables that the behavioural assessment can measure
A) how a person feel and what's going through their mind
B) imaginations, dreams, daydreams
C) changes in muscle tension, heart rate, brain waves
D) trembling, paleness, avoidance
D) trembling, paleness, avoidance
160
what behaviours does the behavioural assessment measure
A) overt behavior
B) covert behaviour
C) Inherent traits
D) Cognitive processes
A) overt behavior
161
what measure would the observer count acts of specific types, checks possibilities from a prearranged list, or watches how far into a sequence of action a person goes before stopping
A) behavioral assessment
B) physiological assessment
C) self-report devices
D) social assessment
A) behavioral assessment
162
what are the characteristics of social–cognitive approach to assessment
A) overt behaviour in certain situations
B) self-report and experiential variables
C)
D)
B) self-report and experiential variables
163
what approach does the social cognitive approaches take in assessment
A) Direct observation of behavior
B) Measurement of physiological responses
C) Asking people how they feel or what kinds of thoughts go through their minds in certain situations
D) Analyzing historical records and background information
C) Asking people how they feel or what kinds of thoughts go through their minds in certain situations
164
what is an important area of assessment in the social cognitive approaches
A) personal views of situations
B) expectancies of coping and expectancies of personal efficacy
C) modeling of behaviour
D) changes in responses to emotions
B) expectancies of coping and expectancies of personal efficacy
165
e social–cognitive learning view tends to emphasize responses to what
A) emotions
B) specific categories of situations
C) objective definitions of situations
D) modeling behaviour
B) specific categories of situations
166
how does the social cognitive learning view differ from the conditioning view
A) Conditioning view emphasis on personal views of situations
B) social–cognitive learning view emphasis on personal views of situations
C) social–cognitive learning view emphasis on objective definitions of situations
D) Conditioning view emphasises people’s representations determine how they act
B) social–cognitive learning view emphasis on personal views of situations
167
what does the conditioning view emphasise
A) personal views of situations
B) objective definitions of situations
C) people’s representations of situations
D) charting overt actions
B) objective definitions of situations
168
what techniques reflect the fact that the emphasis is on changing the person’s actual behavior
A) behaviour modification
B) behaviour change
C) systematic desensitization
D) counter conditioning
A) behaviour modification
169
a conditioning technique for phobia reactions that uses relaxation techniques to counter or replace fear in the presence of the phobic stimulus
A) systematic desensitization
B) Modeling
C) Cognitive restructuring
D) Exposure and response prevention
A) systematic desensitization
170
what is the process used in systematic desensitisation that uses relaxation to replace a fear in the presence of a phobic stimulus
A) conditioning
B) desensitization
C) counterconditioning
D) extinction
C) counterconditioning
171
What is the primary focus of exposure treatments for phobias
a) Minimizing exposure to the feared stimulus
b) Gradually introducing the feared stimulus in small doses
c) Exposing the person to a more intense dose of the feared stimulus
d) Avoiding exposure to anxiety-inducing situations
c) Exposing the person to a more intense dose of the feared stimulus
172
What role does anxiety play in exposure treatments for phobias
a) Anxiety is eliminated before exposure begins
b) Anxiety is ignored during exposure
c) Anxiety is maintained throughout the exposure
d) Anxiety arises and then falls off during exposure
d) Anxiety arises and then falls off during exposure
173
how quickly can exposure treatments for phobias be completed in some cases?
a) Over several weeks
b) In as little as one session
c) Only after months of treatment
d) Exposures are ongoing with no specific endpoint
b) In as little as one session
174
what is the purpose of procedures based on extinction and counterconditioning
A) To reinforce undesirable behaviors
B) Replace an undesired response with a neutral one
C) Strengthen the undesired response
D) Enhance the undesired behavior
B) replace an undesired response with a neutral one
175
what role does context play in the conditioning process
A) Context is irrelevant in the conditioning process
B) Specific settings can provide cues for behavior
C) Context has no impact on learning
D) Conditioning is solely influenced by internal factors
B) Specific settings can provide cues for behavior
176
The principles of instrumental conditioning suggest that the way to change such undesired behavior is to change the patterns of
A) cognitive processes
B) social interactions
C) emotional experiences
D) reinforcement
D) reinforcement
177
Programs for behaviour change in which reinforcement is increased for desired behaviors and withheld after undesired behaviors.
A) Contingency management
B) Operant conditioning
C) Social learning
D) Behavior modification
A) contingency management
178
what occurs during the approach of contingency management
A) exposing a person to an intense stimulus and have then endure it
B) having a person learn to relax and then create an anxiety hierarchy
C) reinforcing a desired alternative action and simultaneously reducany reinforcement of the undesired action
D) having someone watch other peoples actions to reduce their tendency to do a behaviour
C) reinforcing a desired alternative action and simultaneously reducany reinforcement of the undesired action
179
from the social learning view, what do behavioural problems reflect
A) habits
B) resistance to extinction
C) skill deficits
D) emotional disturbances
C) skill deficits
179
what can skill deficits influence
A) the capacity for extinction
B) Development of expectations
C) Emotional disturbances
D) Formation of habits
B) Development of expectations
180
what technique does the social cognitive viewpoint use for skill deficits and emotion based problems
A) observational learning
B) modeling
C) punishment
D) rationalisation
B) modeling
181
from a social cognitive perspective, what therapy would be used when a person does not know what to do in a given situation
A) observational learning
B) vicarious reinforcement
C) punishment
D) rationalisation
A) observational learning
182
from a social cognitive perspective, what therapy would be used when a person doubt whether their behaviour will work in a given situation
A) observational learning
B) vicarious reinforcement
C) punishment
D) rationalisation
B) vicarious reinforcement
183
from a social cognitive perspective, what model creates vicarious extinction of the conditioned fear without exhibiting fear
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
B) mastery model
184
from a social cognitive perspective, what model initially displays fear but overcomes it and eventually handles the situation
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
C) coping model
185
the effect of this model presumably depends on the fact that the model is in the same situation as the observer but is noticeably able to overcome the fear through active effort.
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
C) coping model
186
what models are more effective in therapy for fears
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
C) coping model
187
what model is more cognitive based
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
C) coping model
188
what model (often the therapist) performs the behavior in front of the other person, who then repeats it
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
A) participant model
189
what modeling usually involves a lot of verbalization, instruction, and personalized assurance from the model.
A) participant model
B) mastery model
C) coping model
D) therapist model
A) participant model
190
from Bandura's view, what is the broad principle underlying when a therapy is effective
A) persistence
B) expectation
C) efficiency
D) efficacy
D) efficacy
191
the enhanced perception of efficacy results in what
A) persistence
B) expectation
C) efficiency
D) efficacy
A) persistence
192
which of the following did Bandura NOT suggest can influence efficacy perceptions
A) performance accomplishments
B) persistence
C) participant modeling
D) verbal persuasion
B) persistence
193
which of the following is NOT a criticism of the learning perspective
A) isn’t a theory of personality as a view of the determinants of behavior
B) simplification of the situations in which researchers study
C) does not tell us about the person who's doing the behaviour
D) conveys the subjective experience of what it means to have a personality
D) conveys the subjective experience of what it means to have a personality
194
in terms of exposure therapy for phobias, what makes extinction occur more quickly
A) avoiding exposure to the phobic stimulus
B) when the anxiety arises then falls off
C) prolonging exposure sessions for an extended period
D) using pharmacological interventions alongside exposure therapy
B) when the anxiety arises then falls off
