Midterm #1 SOCI 121 Flashcards
Chapters 1 - 10 (486 cards)
1
Q
A difference in income level between different members of the same generation
A
intragenerational mobility
2
Q
A change in a person’s self-concept and behaviour after their actions are labelled as deviant by members of society
A
secondary deviance
3
Q
The extension of the capitalist mode of production to the entire world
A
global capitalism
4
Q
Any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is aligned with the group
A
group
5
Q
Groups to which an individual compares herself or himself
A
reference groups
6
Q
the ability to define one’s goals and act on them; used as a variable to measure inequality
A
agency
7
Q
A personality disorder characterized by anti-social behaviour, diminished empathy, and lack of inhibitions
A
psychopathy
8
Q
The philosophical tradition that seeks to discover the laws of the operation of the world through careful, methodical, and detailed observation
A
empiricism
9
Q
A standard sequence of changes in a person’s moral capacity to be answerable for their actions
A
moral career
10
Q
Gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey
A
field research
11
Q
The absence of personal feelings in the conduct of organizational tasks
A
impersonality
12
Q
A type of analysis that proposes that social contradiction, opposition, and struggle in society drive processes of social change and transformation
A
dialectics
13
Q
The ability to change positions within a social stratification system
A
social mobility
14
Q
Norms based on social requirements which are based on the moral views and principles of a group
A
mores
15
Q
The elevated feeling experienced by individuals when they come together as a group
A
collective effervescence
16
Q
A consumption model based on small batch production of specialized goods tailored for specific market segments or “niches.”
A
niche market consumption
17
Q
The process by which a global dimension of social relations emerges and spreads
A
globalization
18
Q
The value of a person’s assets
A
wealth
19
Q
An educated guess that predicts outcomes with respect to the relationship between two or more variables
A
hypothesis
20
Q
Evidence corroborated by direct sense experience and/or observation
A
empirical evidence
21
Q
A symbolic system of communication
A
language
22
Q
The expression of a role
A
role performance
23
Q
Norms that are specified in explicit codes and enforced by government bodies
A
law
24
Q
Collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews
A
self-report study
25
A form of colonialism focused on permanent settlement and corresponding displacement of Indigenous Peoples and societies
settler colonialism
26
The continued socio-economic and political dominance of external political and economic agents in former colonies
neo-colonialism
27
The unequal distribution of resources between countries
global stratification
28
A one-on-one conversation between a researcher and a subject
interview
29
A linkage of autonomous companies, or segments of companies, often geographically disperse, organized temporarily for specific projects or tasks and characteristic of global information societies
network enterprise
30
A group who shares a common social status based on their economic position or relationship to the means of production
class
31
The role that social environment plays in self development
nurture
32
Offenders serve a conditional sentence in the community, usually by performing some sort of community service
community-based sentencing
33
An abstract model of a recurring social phenomenon that describes the form and logical relation of components
ideal type
34
Max Weber’s metaphor for the modern condition of life circumscribed by the demand for maximum efficiency
iron cage
35
Ritualized practices by which individuals attest to the esteem they hold for others
presentation rituals
36
The mutual understanding of the tasks or situation at hand shared among co-participants
definition of the situation
37
The loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower
deindustrialization
38
The tendency for people to define themselves in terms of the commodities they purchase
consumerism
39
The communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society
collective conscience
40
The widespread exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations, communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western hemispheres beginning in the 16th century
Columbian Exchange
41
Societies based around the cultivation of plants
horticultural societies
42
Pre-established patterns of behaviour that people are expected to follow in specific social situations
social script
43
A group function that serves achieving a task or goal efficiently and effectively
instrumental function
44
A thorough ethnographic description which describes observed behaviour and the layers of meaning that form the social context of the behaviour
thick description
45
Suicide which results from the absence of strong social bonds tying the individual to a community
egoistic suicide
46
A set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting the commons while advocating the use of free market mechanisms to regulate society
neoliberalism
47
A group that shares a specific identity apart from a parent culture, even as the members hold features in common with the parent culture
subculture
48
How a subjective reality can drive events to develop in accordance with that reality, despite being originally unsupported by objective reality
Thomas theorem
49
A situation in which everyone in a society has a similar level of wealth, status, and power
equality of conditions
50
Crimes committed by high status or privileged members of society
white-collar crime
51
Analytical framework which conceptualizes a single world-system operating as a global division of labour, divided between multiple states, which redistributes surplus value from the periphery to the core
world systems theory
52
The spread of automation, computation, instantaneous communication, and digitization through the use of electronics, computers and internet
third industrial revolution
53
Philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them
paradigms
54
An individual or group who, in the service of its own interests, publicizes and problematizes “wrongdoing” and has the power to promote, influence, create or enforce rules to penalize wrongdoing
moral entrepreneur
55
Cultural assets in the form of knowledge, education, and taste that can be transferred intergenerationally
cultural capital
56
A level of material goods and comforts required to maintain a particular socio-economic lifestyle
standard of living
57
The system tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested, convicted, or sentenced for criminal offences
corrections system
58
A set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting the commons while advocating the use of free market mechanisms to regulate society
neo-liberalism
59
A behaviour that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
crime
60
Variable that causes change in a dependent variable
independent variable
61
Practices by which individuals or organizations seek to govern the behaviour of others or themselves
government
62
The degree of honour or prestige one has in the eyes of others
status
63
The income of a nation calculated based on domestic goods and services produced, plus income earned by citizens and corporations headquartered in that country
gross national income (GNI)
64
A practice where products are designed, manufactured, and assembled in different international locations
global assembly lines
65
A civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, provincial, or community level
police
66
Serious acts of deviance about which there is near-unanimous public agreement
consensus crimes
67
A research focus on the characteristics of local networks, groups, and organizations
meso-level of analysis
68
A situation in which everyone in a society has an equal chance to pursue economic or social rewards
equality of opportunity
69
The experience and attraction to the act of being together for its own sake, regardless of the content of the interaction
pure sociability
70
An approach to understanding society that explains social change, human ideas, and social organization in terms of underlying changes in the economic (or material) structure of society
historical materialism
71
A quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual content that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output
content analysis
72
A group defined by a distinct relationship to the means of production
social class
73
A perspective in which male concerns, male attitudes, and male practices are presented as “normal” or define what is significant and valued in a culture
androcentrism
74
The network of institutions that create and exclude inter-generational, criminalized populations on a semi-permanent basis
penal-welfare complex
75
Activities against the law that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them
victimless crime
76
When one or more of an individual’s social roles clash
role conflict
77
Tenets or convictions that people hold to be true
beliefs
78
Institutions of male power in society
patriarchy
79
When a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation
correlation
80
Groups of people bound together in communities of feeling who gather at particular times and places for specific reasons and then disband
neo-tribes
81
A group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity
in-group
82
Women (or other categories of individual) who break both laws and gender (or other) norms
doubly deviant
83
Actions to which individuals attach subjective meanings
social action
84
A global countermovement based on principles of environmental sustainability, food sovereignty, labour rights, and democratic accountability that challenges the corporate model of globalization
anti-globalization movement
85
A form of colonialism in which the focus is on the extraction of wealth (rather than settlement)
exploitative colonialism
86
An organization principle where group membership and advancement are based on merit as shown through proven and documented skills
meritocracy
87
A characteristic trade off in late modern society between trust in expert systems to manage collective risks and threats, and the recognition of the fallibility of expert systems
risk/trust dilemma
88
The examination of how society is organized and coordinated from the perspective of a particular social location, group or perspective in society
standpoint theory
89
Stress that occurs when too much is required of a single role
role strain
90
A situation of uncertain norms and regulations in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness
anomie
91
Detailed continuous training, control, observation, correction and rehabilitation of individuals to improve their capabilities
disciplinary social control
92
The production of emotional qualities required as an aspect of paid labour
emotional labour
93
A corporation whose ownership and operations span multiple nation-states
multinational corporation
94
Attacks based on prejudice against a person’s or group’s race, religion, sexuality or other characteristics
hate crimes
95
The spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another
diffusion
96
A difference in income level between different generations of a family
intergenerational mobility
97
Ritualized practices by which people keep both a physical and social distance from status superiors
avoidance rituals
98
A group’s whole way of life including shared practices, values, beliefs, norms and artifacts
culture
99
Rules of behaviour or conduct
norms
100
In-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual
case study
101
The movement (flight) of capital from one nation to another, via jobs and resources
capital flight
102
A three-member group
triad
103
A cognitive picture or abstraction delineating the difference between gender categories that people utilize to guide their behavior and information processing
gender schema
104
The processes of increasing integration and interconnection which incorporate people across the world into a single world society
globalization
105
The way people perform tasks based on assigned gender scripts and gendered feedback from significant others
doing gender
106
Producing or inhibiting feelings according to the social expectations of different situations
emotion management
107
An image of self delineated in terms of approved social attributes
face
108
Strategies of social control that redesign spaces where crimes or deviance could occur to minimize the risk of crimes occurring there
situational crime control
109
An institution in which members are required to live in isolation from the rest of society
total institution
110
A scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research
literature review
111
A model of capital accumulation based on mass production, cheap standardized products, high wages, and mass consumption
Fordism
112
A form of domination in which a state or state sponsored group exercises direct control over the territory and inhabitants of another society
colonialism
113
A term that describes stigmatized minority groups who have no voice or representation on the world stage
fourth world
114
An increase in one’s social class
upward mobility
115
A form of slavery in which one person owns another
chattel slavery
116
Productive property, including the things like tools, technologies, resources, land, workplaces, etc. used to produce the goods and services needed for survival
means of production
117
A technique of conciliatory social control which focuses on establishing a direct, face-to-face connection between the offender and the victim
restorative justice conferencing
118
A group that rejects and opposes society’s widely accepted cultural patterns
counterculture
119
When a person’s beliefs and ideology are in conflict with their best interests
false consciousness
120
A form of identity formation defined by the drive to find one’s “self” and to express one’s unique individuality, even in the face of resistance
expressive individualism
121
An approach to teaching and learning based on fostering the agency of marginalized communities and empowering learners to emancipate themselves from oppressive social structures
critical pedagogy
122
Internalized social norms that define what people should do when they occupy a social role in society
social expectation
123
The buildup of external debt, wherein countries borrow money from other nations to fund their expansion or growth goals
debt accumulation
124
The process by which old behaviours are removed and new behaviours are learned in their place
resocialization
125
An invisible barrier that prevents women from achieving positions of leadership
glass ceiling
126
A way of life or a way of conducting oneself in life
ethos
127
Organization that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital
coercive organization
128
Sectors of the global labour market who are of no direct use to capitalism and obliged to sustain themselves precariously in informal sectors of the economy
surplus humanity
129
The way a human society acts upon its environment and its resources in order to process and distribute them to meet their needs
mode of production
130
Variable changed by the impact of another variable
dependent variable
131
The role of the leader in determining how an organization decides what its goals are and how it will attain them
leadership function
132
The system by which the world is divided up into separate and indivisible sovereign territories or states
sovereign state system
133
A status received through individual effort or merits (e.g., occupation, educational level, moral character, etc.)
achieved status
134
A time when children are only capable of imitation and have no ability to imagine how others see things
preparatory stage
135
A theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
control theory
136
The dispersion of a people from their original homeland
diaspora
137
Knowledge that draws general conclusions from limited observations
overgeneralization
138
The replacement of magical thinking by technological rationality and calculation
disenchantment of the world
139
The influence of genetic makeup on self development
nature
140
The transformation in the transportation and trade of goods brought about by the use of container ships
containerization
141
A ritual that marks a life cycle transition from a previous status to a new status
rite of passage
142
The singling out of a particular racial group for extra policing
racial profiling
143
An organization in which participants live a controlled life focused on resocialization
total institution
144
The deliberate imposition of one’s own cultural values on another culture
cultural imperialism
145
A term from the Cold War era that refers to poor, non-industrialized countries
third world
146
The process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identity and are given new ones
degradation ceremony
147
Pre-established patterns of behaviour that people are expected to follow in specific social situations
social scripts
148
A leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks
instrumental leader
149
Punishments for violating norms
negative sanctions
150
A historical materialist model of society in which the economic structure forms the base of a society, which shapes its culture and other social institutions, or superstructure
base and superstructure
151
Theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control
social disorganization theory
152
Relating to manual work or workers
blue-collar
153
Data collections from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviours and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire
surveys
154
The individual’s perception of how think think they appear to others
looking-glass self
155
Information based on systematic interpretations of meaning
qualitative data
156
Statuses obtained by attributions outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race
ascribed status
157
Small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population
sample
158
The critical analysis of the way gender differences in society structure social inequality
feminism
159
The behaviour expected of a person who occupies a particular position
social role
160
In-between nations, not powerful enough to dictate policy but acting as a major source of raw materials and providing an expanding middle class marketplace
semi-peripheral nations
161
The specific drives, needs, purposes, or interests of individuals that motivate them to interact with others
contents
162
The practice of assessing beliefs or practices within a culture by its own standards
cultural relativism
163
A social condition or setting of social and cultural diversity in which a multiplicity of ideas, traditions and customs intermingle
cosmopolitanism
164
The group of close, personal contacts with whom one confides on personal matters and with whom one chooses to spend free time
core discussion group
165
A state of poverty subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations
subjective poverty
166
The replacement of magical thinking by science, technological rationality, and calculation
disenchantment of the world
167
Relating to “mental,” administrative or services work, particularly in an office or other professional environment
white-collar
168
The emergence of group identities that provide individuals with a means of distinguishing themselves from others in the context of global diversity and cosmopolitanism
new tribalism
169
the initial stage of capitalist accumulation in which people are separated from a territory and its resources, and subjected to forms of unfree labour, expropriation of land and destruction of self-determining communities
primitive accumulation
170
Using data collected by others but applying new interpretations
secondary data analysis
171
The duty to work hard in one’s calling
Protestant work ethic
172
A society that uses continual observation, discipline, and correction of its subjects to exercise social control
normalizing society
173
When societal changes increase or decrease the relative income of an entire group or category of people vis-a-vis other groups
structural mobility
174
A set of cultural conventions, instructions, or rules used to combine symbols to communicate or interpret meaning
code
175
The shared meanings, symbols, concepts, categories and images of a social collectivity
collective representations
176
Unions of people within the same social category
endogamous marriages
177
(1) Interventions designed to reduce the likelihood of undesirable events occurring based on an assessment of probabilities of risk. (2) As a means of social control, the strategies to restructure the environment or context of problematic behaviour in order to minimize the risks to the general population
risk management
178
Data collected directly from firsthand experience
primary data
179
A means of social control that prohibits certain social behaviours and responds to violations with punishment
penal social control
180
A group function that serves an emotional need
expressive function
181
A theoretical perspective that focuses on inequality and power relations in society in order to achieve social justice and emancipation through their transformation
critical sociology
182
An approach to social change that advocates slow, incremental improvements in social institutions rather than rapid, revolutionary change of society as a whole
social reform
183
The external laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life
social facts
184
The regulation and enforcement of norms
social control
185
The tendency for the products of culture to detach themselves from lived experience and become increasingly complex, specialized, alienating, or oppressive
tragedy of culture
186
The idea that people understand the world based on their form of language
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
187
Codes that maintain formal social control through laws
legal codes
188
Departures from normal behaviour that are not illegal but are widely regarded as harmful
social deviations
189
The interaction between scientific classifications and targeted “kinds of people,” which influences the behaviour of the people thus classified
looping effect
190
Interventions designed to reduce the likelihood of undesirable events occurring based on an assessment of probabilities of risk
risk management
191
The compounding effects of multiple determinants of social inequality
intersectionality
192
The external laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life
social facts
193
The state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities
absolute poverty
194
The style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members
leadership style
195
A means of social control that obliges an offender to pay a victim to compensate for a harm committed
compensatory social control
196
A group that an individual is not a member of and may compete with
out-group
197
In capitalism, the underclass of chronically unemployed or irregularly employed who are in and out of the workforce
lumpenproletariat
198
The ensemble of policies, rules, patterns of conduct, organizational forms and institutions which stabilize capitalist accumulation
mode of regulation
199
A set of instructions used to solve a problem or perform a task
algorithm
200
The concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority
global inequality
201
The ability to choose and act independently of external constraints
agency
202
Societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labour to create material goods
industrial societies
203
An arrangement of regular, predictable practices and behaviours on which society’s members base their daily lives and expectations
social order
204
Patterns of behaviour that are representative of a person’s social status
roles
205
1989–present
third wave of globalization
206
An unregulated economy of labour and goods that operates outside of governance, regulatory systems, or human protections
underground economy
207
When people prepare for future life roles
anticipatory socialization
208
Large, impersonal organizations
formal organizations
209
A period stretching from puberty to about 18-years-old characterized by the role adjustment from childhood to adulthood
adolescence
210
The three stages of child development (preparatory, play, game stage) in which the child develops the capacity to assume social roles
stages of child socialization
211
The culture of constant change and transformation associated with the rise of capitalism
modernity
212
The class of people defined by selling their labour for a wage or salary
proletariat
213
Sought consequences of a social process
manifest functions
214
A collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who do not interact or share a sense of identity
aggregate
215
After an initial victimization, secondary victimization is incurred through criminal justice processes
secondary victimization
216
The scientific study of social patterns using the methodological principles of the natural sciences
positivist sociology
217
In an experiment, the subjects or comparison group who are not exposed to the independent variable
control group
218
The self or self-image that arises as the reaction to the judgement of others
looking glass self
219
The transformation of social life into the raw material of data as a new stage of global colonization
data colonialism
220
A set of socially shared guidelines that define appropriate emotions in given situations
feeling rules
221
An activity in a bounded situation where there is a mutual focus of attention and a shared emotional experience
interaction ritual
222
the correlation between greater social inequality in a society and lower intergenerational mobility
Great Gatsby curve
223
A social process in which an individual’s social identity is established through the imposition of a definition by authorities
labelling
224
The extent to which an individual complies with group or societal norms
conformity
225
The way in which the creation of culture is both constrained by limits given by the environment, and a means to go beyond these natural limits
dialectic of culture
226
Insecure employment based on subcontracting, temporary contracts, outsourcing and involuntary part-time work
precarious employment
227
Research approach that utilizes positivist, interpretive and reflexive methods to produce knowledge that maximizes the human potential for freedom and equality
critical research strategy
228
An act of self-presentation in which an individual expresses their view of the situation, their attitude towards the other members of the group, and their attitude towards themselves
line
229
Advanced systems of knowledge and practice required to run the complex institutional arrangements and technological systems of contemporary societies
expert system
230
A system of justice centred on healing and building or re-establishing community rather than retribution and punishment
traditional Aboriginal justice
231
In an experiment, the subjects who are exposed to the independent variable
experimental group
232
A status received by virtue of being born into a category or group (e.g., hereditary position, gender, race, etc.)
ascribed status
233
A sociological paradigm that models human interaction on the basis of calculated social exchanges of resources governed by a norm of reciprocity
exchange theory
234
A sociological approach which transforms aspects of social life into numerical variables, such as statistical methods and surveys with large numbers of participants
quantitative sociology
235
A form of biological determinism that suggests the qualities of human life are caused by genes
geneticism
236
Awareness of one’s class position and interests
class consciousness
237
Knowledge based on observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of observations
casual observation
238
Statuses obtained by personal effort or choice
achieved status
239
Social solidarity or cohesion through a complex division of labour, mutual interdependence, and restitutive law
organic solidarity
240
Unions of people from different social categories
exogamous marriages
241
A process in which a dominant group displaces their unfocused aggression and violence onto a subordinate group
scapegoating
242
The process of social exchange and reciprocal influence exercised by individuals over one another during social encounters
social interaction
243
The informal teaching done in schools that socializes children to societal norms
hidden curriculum
244
the ability of a dominant group in society to secure consent to its rule by successfully presenting its own interests, values and norms as the common sense interests, values and norms of everybody
hegemony
245
A set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting the commons while advocating the use of free market mechanisms to regulate society
neo-liberalism
246
Forms of cultural experience characterized by formal complexity, eternal values, or creative authenticity
high culture
247
Features that define the common culture of global society
late modernity
248
The process by which norms are used to differentiate, rank, and correct individual behaviour
normalization
249
An individual who has a large impact on a person’s socialization or plays a formative role in shaping their life
significant other
250
The study of the way everyday life is coordinated through institutional, textually mediated practices
institutional ethnography
251
A characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values
variable
252
The notion that women lie about sexual assault out of malice toward men and women will say “no” to sexual relations when they really mean “yes”
twin myths of rape
253
The degree to which a group of people cohere or are bound together through shared consciousness, qualities or social ties
social solidarity
254
A type of analysis that proposes that social contradiction, opposition, and struggle in society drive processes of social change and transformation
dialectics
255
The ability to understand how personal problems of milieu relate to public issues of social structure
sociological imagination
256
The difference between the proportion of an identifiable group in a particular institution (like the correctional system) and their proportion in the general population
overrepresentation
257
The principle that territory and economic resources that are not being effectively utilized by an indigenous population could legitimately be expropriated and developed by a superior invading nation
Terra Nullius
258
The systematic study of society and social interaction
sociology
259
A practice of self-awareness, self-reflection, and self-monitoring in which people distance themselves from traditions and institutional roles to construct their own identities
reflexive subjectivity
260
Nations on the fringes of the global economy, dominated by core nations, with very little industrialization
peripheral nations
261
The two components or phases of the self-reflective self
I and me
262
The ascribing of a deviant identity to another person by members of society
labelling theory
263
A defined group serving as the subject of a study
population
264
The process whereby former colonies attain formal political self-determination and independence from colonial powers
decolonization
265
A way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviours
sanctions
266
The specific reasons or drives that motivate individuals to interact
content
267
The generation of hypotheses and theories after the collecting and analysis of data
grounded theory
268
Buying and using products to make a statement about social standing
conspicuous consumption
269
An organization that people join to fill a specific material need
utilitarian organization
270
A two-member group
dyad
271
A detailed, systematic method for conducting research and obtaining data
research design
272
The testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions
experiment
273
The process in which work conditions increasingly resemble those of the traditional, blue-collar working class
proletarianization
274
The act of implanting a convention or norm into society
institutionalization
275
A violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others
primary deviance
276
Analytical framework that the development of global capitalism takes place less in the context of national economies and more in the context of global flows of capital investment in an increasingly integrated world market
global capitalism theory
277
A way to encourage conformity to cultural norms
social control
278
Societies based on the production of nonmaterial goods and services
information societies
279
A personality disorder characterized by anti-social behaviour, diminished empathy, and lack of inhibitions
sociopathy
280
Shared beliefs, values, and practices in a whole way of life
culture
281
The process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
socialization
282
The money a person earns from work or investments
income
283
An object, service, or good that has been produced for sale on the market
commodity
284
Living without the minimum amount of income or resources needed to be able to participate in the ordinary living patterns, customs, and activities of a society
relative poverty
285
Established, written rules
formal norms
286
How strongly a person is connected to their social group
social integration
287
A practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment, during the course of a study and in publishing results
value neutrality
288
A means of social control that reconciles the parties of a dispute and mutually restores harmony to a social relationship that has been damaged
conciliatory social control
289
A stratification system based on class structure and individual achievement
class system
290
The general tendency in modern society for all institutions and most areas of life to be transformed by the application of rationality and efficiency
rationalization
291
The use of tests by authorities to assess, document, and know individuals
examination
292
A hands-off leader who allows members of the group to make their own decisions
laissez-faire leader
293
Crimes committed as ways in which individuals cope with conditions of oppression and inequality
crimes of accommodation
294
The study of specific, local relationships between individuals or small groups
micro-level sociology
295
In capitalism, the class of small owners like shopkeepers, farmers, and contractors who own some property and perhaps employ a few workers but rely on their own labour to survive
petite bourgeoisie
296
Penalties for rule breaking that are officially recognized and enforced
formal sanctions
297
A system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives
caste system
298
A collection of people tied together by a specific configuration of connections through which resources are exchanged
social network
299
Areas within the city characterized by high levels of migration, social diversity, and social change
zones of transition
300
Gesture, object, or component of language that represents a meaning recognized by people who share a culture
symbol
301
A theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society
structural functionalism
302
A system that has the authority to make decisions about criminal responsibility and sentencing based on law
court
303
A city which has become a central node in a global economic network
global city
304
Forms of contemporary culture characterized by a playful mixture of forms, pluralism, and the breakdown of centralized, modern culture
postmodern culture
305
The three stages of evolution that societies develop through: theological, metaphysical, and positive
law of three stages
306
A way of doing things that expresses the customs and know-how of a particular culture
cultural practice
307
A label that describes the chief characteristic of an individua
master status
308
Rules of behaviour that are generally and widely followed but not codified in law or institutional policy
informal norms
309
Cultural experiences, practices and products that are widely circulated, produced by or well-liked by “the people.”
popular culture
310
The involvement of Indigenous communities in the sentencing of Indigenous offenders
Aboriginal sentencing circles
311
The way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society
moral development
312
The process whereby social patterns become routinized through repetition so they can be performed again in the future in the same manner and with the same economical effort
habitualization
313
The gap between those who are able to access and make effective use of information technology and those who cannot
digital divide
314
The study of society-wide social structures and processes
macro-level sociology
315
The process through which objects, services, or goods are turned into commodities
commodification
316
Social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
dysfunctions
317
The income needed to meet a family’s basic needs and enable them to participate in community life
living wage
318
Patterns or traits that are common to all societies
cultural universals
319
The structures of a social group of people who interact within a definable territory and who share a culture
society
320
The process of simultaneously analyzing the behaviour of an individual and the society that shapes that behaviour
figuration
321
A severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information
absolute poverty
322
The management of one’s face in light of the responses of others
face-work
323
Acts that violate social norms but are generally regarded as harmless
social diversions
324
A labour market divided into a core of relatively stable, well-paid jobs and a periphery of casual, precarious, and low-cost labour
bifurcated labour system
325
Strategies of social control that identify, classify, and manage groupings of offenders by the degree of risk they represent to the general public
new penology
326
Crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment
corporate crime
327
A theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship of individuals within society by studying their communication (language, gestures, and symbols)
symbolic interactionism
328
The unequal distribution of valued resources, rewards, and positions in a society
social inequality
329
Small, informal groups that provide the individual with intimacy and support
primary groups
330
The philosophical tradition that seeks to determine the underlying laws that govern the truth of reason and ideas
rationalism
331
The idea that the characteristics of persons or groups are significantly influenced by biological factors or human nature, and are therefore largely similar in all human cultures and historical periods
essentialism
332
An institutionalized system of social inequality
social stratification
333
Crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force
nonviolent crimes
334
Knowledge based on observations that only confirm what the observer expects or wants to see
selective observation
335
The tendency of offenders to reoffend
recidivism
336
The conscious subversion of messages, signs, and symbols by altering them slightly
detournement
337
A group’s social position in a hierarchy based on income, education, and prestige of occupation
socio-economic status (SES)
338
Rewards given for conforming to norms
positive sanctions
339
The study of variations in gene expression under the impact of environmental influences
epigenetics
340
A law stating that all property passes to the firstborn son
primogeniture
341
Strategies used by a performer to control the impressions and responses of the others in a social interaction
impression management
342
1945-1989
second wave of globalization
343
Knowledge based on the accepted authority of the source
authoritative knowledge
344
A system where an employer compels a worker to pay off a debt with work
peonage
345
The capacity of individuals to act and make decisions independently
agency
346
A term from the Cold War era that describes nations with moderate economies and standards of living
second world
347
An idea that becomes true when acted on
self-fulfilling prophecy
348
An experience of personal disorientation when confronted with an unfamiliar way of life
culture shock
349
When study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher
Hawthorne effect
350
A form of capitalism based on surveilling, extracting, and commodifying digital information about people
surveillance capitalism
351
The general tendency of modern institutions and most areas of life to be transformed by the application of instrumental reason
rationalization
352
The political form in which a single, central, supreme lawmaking authority governs within a clearly demarcated territory
sovereignty
353
The owners of the means of production in a society
bourgeoisie
354
An experiment in which researchers purposely break a commonly accepted social norm or behave in a socially awkward manner to examine people’s reactions
breaching experiment
355
Shared way in which people freely or voluntarily act upon themselves to transform themselves
practice of the self
356
The tendency to conform to the attitudes and beliefs of the group despite individual misgivings
groupthink
357
The state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country
relative poverty
358
People who share similar characteristics but who are not otherwise socially connected
category
359
Dominant capitalist countries
core nations
360
An irrational fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods
xenophobia
361
Referring to abstract concepts, complex processes, or mutable social relationships as “things.”
reification
362
Crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces
street crime
363
An array of roles attached to a particular status
role-set
364
Strong prohibitions based on deeply held sacred or moral beliefs
taboos
365
The condition in which an individual is isolated from their society, work, sense of self, and/or common humanity
alienation
366
Evaluating another culture according to the standards of one’s own culture
ethnocentrism
367
A systematic research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions
scientific method
368
Methodologies that derive a general statement from a series of empirical observations
inductive approach
369
Norms without any particular moral underpinnings
folkways
370
Promotion of making new reproductive technologies and human genetic engineering available to consumers to enhance human characteristics and capacities
new eugenics movement
371
Organizations that people choose to join to pursue shared interests or because they provide intangible rewards
normative or voluntary organizations
372
The wage labourers in capitalist society
proletariat
373
Serious moral injunctions or taboos that are broadly recognized in a society
mores
374
Large scale, societal patterns in people’s feelings or emotional responses towards things
structure of feeling
375
A theory that states individuals learn deviant behaviour from those close to them
differential association theory
376
The division of people into different occupations and specializations
division of labour
377
The study of how specific social contents are organized into regular patterns of social coordination
formal sociology
378
An economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership, production, and sale of goods in a competitive market
capitalism
379
Rules that are explicitly stated, written down, and standardized
explicit rules
380
Anything that is used in economic production in a society to produce goods, satisfy needs and maintain existence (e.g., land, animals, crop production, technology, factories, etc.)
means of production
381
A research focus on the properties of large scale, society-wide, social interactions
macro-level of analysis
382
The geological epoch defined by the impact of human activities on the global ecosystem
anthropocene
383
The stage in child development in which children begin to recognize and interact with particular others on the basis of fixed norms and roles
game stage
384
Specific ways of rendering abstract concepts in terms of measurable and observable criteria
operational definitions
385
A means of social control that uses therapy to return individuals to a normal state
therapeutic social control
386
A stable state in which all parts of a functioning society are working together properly
dynamic equilibrium
387
A means of enforcing rules through either rewards or punishments
sanctions
388
Societies based around the domestication of animals
pastoral societies
389
The experience of a fissure or division in consciousness when one crosses a line between the abstractions of institutional knowledge and the direct, lived experiences of everyday/every night life
dual consciousness
390
The process of dismantling colonial power structures
decolonization
391
A sociological research method that studies the social world from the point of view of the bodies and bodily practices of the participants
carnal sociology
392
An individual in a network is influenced by their immediate social contacts, their social contacts’ contacts, and their social contacts’ contacts’ contacts
three degrees of influence
393
A measure of income inequality in which zero is absolute equality and one is absolute inequality
Gini Index
394
A term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies
first world
395
A network of owners of capital who are distributed around the world and focused on international markets, rather than their home markets, for investment and capital accumulation
transnational capitalist class
396
A system of social security whereby the government intervenes in the economy to redistribute resources and protect the health and well-being of its citizens
welfare state
397
An ideal system in which individual achievements determine social standing
meritocracy
398
The study of social structures and processes on the basis of a systematic description of the contents of subjective experience
phenomenology
399
The theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration
iron law of oligarchy
400
A technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance
dramaturgical analysis
401
An explanation about why something occurs
theory
402
A perspective that explains human behaviour in terms of the meanings individuals attribute to it
interpretive sociology
403
Societies that depend on hunting wild animals and gathering uncultivated plants for survival
hunter-gatherer societies
404
General patterns of social behaviour and organization that persist through time
social structure
405
Social solidarity or cohesion through a shared collective consciousness with harsh punishment for deviation from the norms
mechanical solidarity
406
How many people a person must take orders from versus how many people a person can give orders to or influence with their decisions
power
407
Agricultural societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership, protection, and mutual obligations
feudal societies
408
A collectivity based on shared emotional bonds, ambience, feeling, sensibility, or atmoshere
community of feeling
409
The division of people into categories based on socially significant characteristics, identities, and roles
social differentiation
410
An approach to understanding society that explains social change, human ideas, and social organization in terms of underlying changes in the economic (or material) structure of society
historical materialism
411
The patterns of behaviour that guide or regulate individuals’ actions in different social settings
forms
412
19th century-1914
first wave of globalization
413
A global pattern in which women increasingly bear a disproportionate percentage of the burden of poverty
global feminization of poverty
414
Organizational structure in which each individual has a specialized task to perform
division of labour
415
The process by which groups become isolated in ways that hinder their communication and cooperation with others
siloization
416
Various means used to make the lives and activities of individuals visible to authorities
surveillance
417
Crimes based on the use of force or the threat of force against a person or persons
violent crimes
418
The extended observation of the cultural practices, perspectives, beliefs and values of an entire social setting
ethnography
419
When people pledge themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom
debt bondage
420
Norms based on everyday cultural customs like etiquette
folkways
421
The division of society into economic classes (the social roles allotted to individuals by virtue of their position in an economic system of production)
relations of production
422
A society whose social structure is made up of networks organized through digital information and communications technologies
network society
423
A social condition or normlessness in which a lack of clear norms fails to give direction and purpose to individual actions
anomie
424
A group of people whose members interact, reside in a definable area, and share a culture
society
425
Penalties for rule breaking that occur in face-to-face interactions
informal sanctions
426
The belief that physiological sex differences between males and females are related to differences in their character, behaviour, and ability
dominant gender ideology
427
The increasing presence of the fast-food business model of control, predictability, calculability and efficiency in common social institutions
McDonaldization
428
Any two individuals on Earth can be linked on average by six network connections
six degrees of separation
429
Acts of deviance that may be illegal but about which there is considerable public disagreement concerning their seriousness
conflict crimes
430
When one or more of an individual’s roles clash
role conflict
431
A leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional well-being
expressive leader
432
A lowering of one’s social class
downward mobility
433
The act of labeling someone as criminal or deviant creates barriers and impediments that make it difficult for them to pass or survive in legitimate society. The label causes itself to become true
self-fulfilling prophecy
434
An argument that social inequality provides positive functional incentives in the occupational system
Davis-Moore thesis
435
A person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
self
436
The distribution of impersonal information to a wide audience via television, newspapers, radio, and the internet
mass media
437
In capitalism, the owning class who live from the proceeds of owning or controlling capital
bourgeoisie
438
A research focus on the social dynamics of small groups and face-to-face interaction
micro-level of analysis
439
The consistency, or lack thereof, of an individual’s rank across different social categories like income, education, and occupation
status consistency
440
The process whereby day-to-day life is increasingly less informed by traditions or the ways of life passed down in local cultural and ecological contexts
de-traditionalization
441
New forms of culture that arise from cross-cultural exchange and cultural blending
hybridity
442
The unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process
latent functions
443
Large, impersonal groups that are task-focused and time-limited
secondary groups
444
The privileges and benefits that a person experiences according to their prestige and role in society
status
445
A formal organization characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labour, explicit rules, impersonality and meritocracy
bureaucracy
446
The economic transition to sedentary, agriculture based societies beginning approximately 10,200 years
neolithic revolution
447
A theory that addresses the conflictual relationship between having socially acceptable goals while lacking socially acceptable means to reach those goals
strain theory
448
A leader who encourages group participation and consensus-building before acting
democratic leader
449
A group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
peer group
450
A stage of social evolution in which people explain events in terms of abstract or speculative ideas
metaphysical stage
451
A clear chain of command
hierarchy of authority
452
Theory stating that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations
dependency theory
453
Knowledge based on received beliefs or the way things have always been done
traditional knowledge
454
The process in which day to day life is no longer completely embedded in local, micro-level interactions but becomes coordinated and organized on a global basis
disembedding
455
Information from research collected in numerical form that can be counted
quantitative data
456
A threshold that needs to be crossed for violence to take place in face to face conflicts
confrontational tension/fear barrier
457
Internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations around the world for the purpose of manufacture, distribution, and marketing
global commodity chains
458
A violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
deviance
459
The study of structures and processes that extend beyond the boundaries of states or specific societies
global level of analysis
460
A stage of social evolution in which people explain events with respect to the will of God or gods
theological stage
461
An organization that exists to enforce a legal code
criminal justice system
462
The role a social phenomenon performs in satisfying a social or biological need and ensuring the continuity of society
social function
463
A theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship of individuals within society by studying their communication (language, gestures and symbols)
symbolic interactionism
464
The study of deep unconscious rules or codes that govern cultural activities and constrain possibilities in different domains of social life
structuralism
465
The common behavioural expectations of general society
generalized other
466
the market value of all goods and services produced within a country in a given time period
gross domestic product (GDP)
467
An expanding cycle of deviance, media-generated public fears, and police reaction
moral panic
468
A set of paired terms, considered as mutually exclusive and logical opposites, which structure a whole set or system of associated meanings
binary opposition
469
An explanation of in-group/out-group behaviour which predicts that antagonism will develop between groups if there is a competition for a resource in which only one group can be the winner and in the absence of superordinate goals requiring cooperation
realistic conflict theory
470
The study of structures and processes that extend beyond the boundaries of states or specific societies
global-level sociology
471
A theoretical perspective that focuses on the socially created nature of social life
social constructivism
472
A theory that low-income countries can improve their global economic standing by industrialization of infrastructure and a shift in cultural attitudes toward work
modernization theory
473
A stance of contemporary individuality and institutional life that involves (a) continuous monitoring of activities and performance to assess effectiveness and future risks, and (b) a readiness to modify understandings and practices in response to new information
reflexivity
474
General patterns of social behaviour and social coordination that persist through time and become habitual or routinized at micro-levels of interaction or institutionalized at macro or global levels of interaction
social structure
475
The degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study
validity
476
A culture’s standard for discerning desirable states in society
values
477
A form of society characterized by irreducible social heterogeneity, contingent social relationships, and ephemeral organizational structures
postmodern society
478
A representative subset of a population selected without bias. Every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study
random sample
479
A leader who issues orders and demands compliance from subordinates
authoritarian leader
480
The relationship between core and peripheral countries in which resources of the hinterlands are shipped to the metropolises to be converted into manufactured goods and then shipped back to the hinterlands for consumption
metropolis-hinterland relationship
481
A time when children begin to episodically imitate and take on roles that another person might have
play stage
482
A set of guidelines established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology or other disciplines
code of ethics
483
Institutional architecture that renders subjects visible to a centralized authority; Jeremy Betham’s model for the ideal prison
panopticon
484
The mutual understanding of a shared social context, which arises out of communicative interaction
definition of the situation
485
Immersion by a researcher in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective
participant observation
486
A situation in which an individual is trapped by the rational and efficient processes of social institutions
iron cage
