LEARNING PERSPECTIVE Flashcards
where does disagreement remain in relation to learning
A) Whether learning impacts intelligence
B) Whether learning is static or dynamic process
C) Whether learning is unified or distinct
D) Whether learning affects motivation
C) Whether learning is unified or distinct
in classical conditioning, what must the first condition be
A) Voluntary responses
B) Reflexive response
C) Conscious awareness
D) Inhibition or automatic responses
B) Reflexive response
what must the organism already do in classical conditioning?
a. Deliberately ignore stimuli
b. Reflexively respond to stimuli
c. Develop new stimuli-responses
d. Exhibit voluntary control over responses
b. Reflexively respond to stimuli
How is a reflex described in the context of classical conditioning?
a. A random response to a stimulus
b. A learned connection between stimuli
c. An automatic response to a stimulus
d. A conscious decision to respond
c. An automatic response to a stimulus
in classical conditioning what is a reflex
a. A new connection between an UR and an US
b. A voluntary response
c. An inhibitory response occuring from threat
d. An existing connection between a stimulus and response
d. An existing connection between a stimulus and response
in classical conditioning, what must the second condition be
A) The stimulus must be avoided initially
B) The stimulus must be associated with a response
C) The stimulus must be presented randomly
D) The stimulus must become associated with another stimulus
D) The stimulus must become associated with another stimulus
What is the characteristic of the second stimulus when it is first introduced in classical conditioning?
A) It causes an immediate response
B) It is always biologically significant
C) It is usually neutral and causes no particular response
D) It is avoided by the organism
C) It is usually neutral and causes no particular response
How is the second stimulus described when initially introduced in classical conditioning?
A) It is inherently reflexive
B) It is aversive in nature
C) It is usually neutral at first
D) It always causes a specific response
C) It is usually neutral at first
what can the second stimulus be in classical conditioning?
a. Anything, such as a color, sound, object, or person
b. Only biologically significant stimuli
c. Only stimuli with aversive characteristics
d. Only stimuli that are reflexive in nature
a. Anything, such as a color, sound, object, or person
in classical conditioning, what occurs in the first stage situation
A) Only a neutral stimulus exists
B) Only a reflex exists
C) Both a neutral stimulus and a reflex exist
D) The conditioned response occurs
B) only a reflex exists
In classical conditioning, what is the first stage described in the information?
a. The stage of initial response
b. The situation after conditioning
c. The situation before conditioning
d. The stage of advanced conditioning
c. The situation before conditioning
What term is used to refer to the stimulus in the first stage of classical conditioning?
a. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
b. Unconditioned stimulus (US)
c. Neutral stimulus (NS)
d. Reinforcement stimulus (RS)
b. Unconditioned stimulus (US)
what is the response called in the first stage of classical conditioning?
a. Conditioned response (CR)
b. Unconditioned response (UR)
c. Neutral response (NR)
d. Reinforcement response (RR)
b. Unconditioned response (UR)
What does the term “unconditional” mean in the context of classical conditioning?
a. The response occurs only in specific conditions
b. The response is voluntary
c. No special condition is required for the response to occur
d. The response is limited to certain stimuli
c. No special condition is required for the response to occur
What is the second stage of the classical conditioning procedure
A) The conditioning of a reflexive response
B) The conditioning of neutral stimuli
C) The development of voluntary responses
D) The elimination of responses
B) The conditioning of neutral stimuli
when does the neutral stimulus occur in the conditioning stage
A) Along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus (US)
B) Before the unconditioned response (UR)
C) After the unconditioned response (UR)
D) After the elimination of the unconditioned stimulus (US)
A) Along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus (US)
what is the neutral stimulus termed after conditioning
A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
B) Conditional stimulus (CS)
C) Conditioned response (CR)
D) Neutral response (NR)
B) conditional stimulus (CS)
once a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) when does a response occur
A) When the CS is eliminated
B) Only when the US is present
C) in the presence of the conditioned stimulus
D) In the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US)
B) Only when the US is present
How is the conditioned stimulus (CS) distinguished from the neutral stimulus?
a. The CS always produces a conditioned response
b. The CS occurs after the unconditioned response
c. The CS is presented along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus
d. The CS is unrelated to the unconditioned stimulus
c. The CS is presented along with or slightly before the unconditioned stimulus
what response occurs when the US and the CS are paired frequently
A) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
B) Conditional stimulus (CS)
C) Conditioned response (CR)
D) Neutral response (NR)
C) Conditioned response (CR)
what is the distinction between a conditioned response and an unconditioned response
A) they both produce the same response
B) the unconditioned response is less intense
C) the conditioned response is less intense
D) the conditioned response is more intense
C) the conditioned response is less intense
what are similarities in the conditioned and unconditioned responses
A) Both are learned behaviors
B) the conditioned response quality will have the associated response to the unconditioned response
C) They occur in different contexts
D) They are mediated by different neural pathways
B) the conditioned response quality will have the associated response to the unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, what is the method suggested to determine whether conditioning has taken place?
a) By reinforcing the CS
b) By presenting the CS with the US
c) By eliminating the CS from the conditioning process
d) By presenting the CS by itself, without the US
d) By presenting the CS by itself, without the US
In classical conditioning, what is the significance of presenting the CS without the US?
a) To reinforce the CS
b) To assess the strength of the UR
c) To determine the presence of a conditioned response
d) To test whether conditioning has occurred
d) To test whether conditioning has occurred
If there is no reaction to the CS alone in classical conditioning, what does it suggest?
a) The CS has become a conditioned stimulus
b) Conditioning has occurred successfully
c) Extinction is taking place
d) There has been no conditioning
d) There has been no conditioning
under what circumstance might classical conditioning occur with only one pairing?
a) When the CS is presented multiple times
b) When the UR is weak
c) When the US is very strong, causing a very intense UR
d) When the CR is delayed
under what circumstance might classical conditioning occur with only one pairing?
why might cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy develop strong CRs after only one exposure?
a) Because the chemotherapy medication is a weak US
b) Because the patients are resistant to conditioning
c) Because the patients have a weak UR
d) Because the chemotherapy medication causes very intense nausea, creating a strong UR
d) Because the chemotherapy medication causes very intense nausea, creating a strong UR
an event in which a former CS now acts as a US in a new instance of conditioning
a) Higher-order conditioning
b) Extinction
c) Spontaneous recovery
d) Generalization
a) Higher-order conditioning
What does the CS–CR combination act like once conditioning has taken place in classical conditioning?
a) A voluntary response
b) Any other reflex
c) A conscious decision
d) An inhibitory response
b) Any other reflex
How is classical conditioning typically portrayed
a) As a high-level cognitive process
b) As a voluntary decision-making process
c) As a low-level process
d) As a conscious awareness exercise
c) As a low-level process
what is the primary mechanism in classical conditioning for spreading a response from one stimulus to another?
a) The strength of the response
b) The conscious awareness of stimuli
c) The close proximity in time of stimuli
d) The voluntary control of responses
c) The close proximity in time of stimuli
What is the common perception of classical conditioning in terms of its level of cognitive involvement?
a) High-level cognitive process
b) Low-level process
c) Intermediate-level process
d) Unrelated to cognitive processes
b) Low-level process
According to Rescorla, what is the key factor in classical conditioning?
a) The proximity of stimuli in time and place
b) The voluntary control of responses
c) The information one stimulus provides about the other
d) The conscious awareness of stimuli
c) The information one stimulus provides about the other
How does Rescorla characterize the learning process in classical conditioning?
a) As a process of conscious decision-making
b) As a representation of the world based on temporal associations
c) As a process of surprise when organisms are “surprised” by something happening to them
d) As a process of automatic responses to stimuli
c) As a process of surprise when organisms are “surprised” by something happening to them
According to Rescorla, when do organisms learn in classical conditioning?
a) When they consciously decide to learn
b) When stimuli occur close in time
c) When they are “surprised” by something happening to them
d) When they voluntarily control their responses
c) When they are “surprised” by something happening to them
in Robert Rescorla view, what makes conditioning occur
A) association in time and place
B) the information one stimulus gives about the other
C) how intense the CS is
D) their experiences of relations between parts of the world to represent reality
B) the information one stimulus gives about the other
Classical conditioning is usually portrayed as a low-level process, what does this mean
A) a response gets spread from one stimulus to another because they occur close in time
B) organisms use their experiences of relations between parts of the world to represent reality
C) the information one stimulus gives about the other causes conditioning
D) organisms learn only when they’re “surprised” by something that happens to them
A) a response gets spread from one stimulus to another because they occur close in time
How does Rescorla characterize learning in classical conditioning?
a) As a process of conscious decision-making
b) As a representation of the world based on temporal associations
c) As a process of aligning the organism’s representation of the world with the actual state of the world
d) As a process of automatic responses to stimuli
c) As a process of aligning the organism’s representation of the world with the actual state of the world
as a result of organisms learning only when they are surprised, what can happen when two stimuli are experienced together
A) a conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented with an unconditioned stimulus always produces a conditioned response
B) a conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented with an unconditioned stimulus can become redundant and not cause a conditioned response
C) presentation of a CS and US without prior conditioning pairings will not elicit a conditioned response
D) none of the above
B) a conditioned stimulus repeatedly presented with an unconditioned stimulus can become redundant and not cause a conditioned response
Rescorla (1988) argued against classical conditioning being a slow process and says learning commonly occurs in
A) 10 trials
B) 20 trials
C) five to six trials
D 1 trial
C) five to six trials
what is the process of generalisation
a) Responding only to identical stimuli
b) Responding in a similar way to similar-but-not-identical stimuli
c) Responding exclusively to the conditioned stimulus (CS)
d) Ignoring all stimuli except the unconditioned stimulus (US)
b) Responding in a similar way to similar-but-not-identical stimuli
in generalisation, what would occur if stimuli become more different from the initial CS
A) forgetting
B) discrimination
C) habituation
D) extinction
B) discrimination
what occurs when a CS appears repeatedly without the US
A) forgetting
B) discrimination
C) habituation
D) extinction
D) extinction
what word is used when a conditioned response becomes weaker
A) forgetting
B) discrimination
C) habituation
D) extinction
D) extinction
when a behavior that is believed to be extinct unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period of rest or lessened response
A) remembering
B) spontaneous recovery
C) emotional conditioning
D) instant recovery
B) spontaneous recovery
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
a) The immediate extinction of a conditioned behavior
b) The gradual return of a conditioned behavior over an extended period
c) The unexpected and rapid return of a conditioned behavior after a period of rest or reduced response
d) The permanent cessation of a conditioned behavior
c) The unexpected and rapid return of a conditioned behavior after a period of rest or reduced response
what is believed about classical conditioning leaving a permanent record in the nervous system
A) it has no impact on the NS
B) Its effects can be erased
C) Its effects can be muted
D) It has a temporary effect on the nervous system
C) Its effects can be muted
According to current perspectives, what is extinction in classical conditioning often considered to be?
a) The erasure of the original conditioning
b) The creation of new conditioning for “no-response” responses to the CS
c) A temporary suppression of the conditioned response
d) The reinforcement of the unconditioned stimulus (US)
b) The creation of new conditioning for “no-response” responses to the CS
In classical conditioning involving humans, what often characterizes the responses?
a) The absence of emotional qualities
b) Reflexive reactions with emotional qualities
c) Voluntary responses with cognitive qualities
d) Unconscious responses with physical qualities
b) Reflexive reactions with emotional qualities
What term is sometimes used to describe classical conditioning in which the conditioned responses (CRs) are emotional reactions?
a) Volitional conditioning
b) Cognitive conditioning
c) Emotional conditioning
d) Physical conditioning
c) Emotional conditioning
According to Andrew Elliot and colleagues, what emotional reactions may be evoked by the color red in academic contexts?
a) Positive emotions
b) Neutral emotions
c) Negative emotions
d) Cognitive emotions
c) Negative emotions
According to the learning view on personality, how are people’s likes and dislikes believed to develop?
a) Through genetic inheritance
b) Through conscious decision-making
c) Through the conditioning of emotional responses
d) Through cognitive processes
c) Through the conditioning of emotional responses
to what does the principle of generalization apply?
a) Only to neutral stimuli
b) Only to inanimate objects
c) Only to specific environments
d) All kinds of stimuli, including other people
d) All kinds of stimuli, including other people
what role can emotional conditioning play in personality development?
a) A minor role
b) No role at all
c) A major role
d) An irrelevant role
c) A major role
In classical conditioning, what is the neutral stimulus (CS) paired with to develop attitudes?
a. Unconditional stimulus (US)
b. Emotional reaction (UR)
c. Unconditional response (UR)
d. Attitude object
b. Emotional reaction (ER)
How does an attitude develop when an attitude object is paired with an emotion-arousing stimulus?
A) The emotion-arousing stimulus becomes the attitude object.
B) The emotion-arousing stimulus loses its emotional impact.
C) The neutral stimulus becomes an unconditioned stimulus.
D) The attitude object comes to evoke the emotion itself.
D) The attitude object comes to evoke the emotion itself.
What is a key difference between instrumental conditioning and classical conditioning?
A) Classical conditioning is passive, while instrumental conditioning is active.
B) Classical conditioning requires active participation, while instrumental conditioning is passive.
C) Both classical and instrumental conditioning are passive processes.
D) Both classical and instrumental conditioning require active engagement.
A) Classical conditioning is passive, while instrumental conditioning is active.
Why is classical conditioning considered passive?
A) It involves voluntary actions.
B) It requires active participation.
C) Reflexes occur without the need for any action.
D) It is a conscious and intentional process.
C) Reflexes occur without the need for any action.
In instrumental conditioning, what is emphasized in contrast to classical conditioning?
A) Passive observation
B) Reflexive reactions
C) Active participation
D) Unconscious processes
C) Active participation
If a behavior is followed by a better (more satisfying) state of affairs, the behavior is more likely to be done again later in a similar situation
A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) associative learning
D) backward conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
This principle accounts for the fact that (over time and experiences) some behaviors emerge from the many possible behaviors as habitual responses that occur in specific situations.
A) classical conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
C) associative learning
D) backward conditioning
B) instrumental conditioning
Thorndike’s term which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.
A) instrumental conditioning
B) law of effect
C) reflexive reactions
D) passive observation
B) law of effect
What is the key outcome that results from the application of the law of effect?
A) A change in reflexive reactions
B) A change in the likelihood of future action
C) The development of classical conditioning
D) The extinction of conditioned responses
B) A change in the likelihood of future action
What does the law of effect, as deduced by E. L. Thorndike, involve?
A) A link between a stimulus and a response
B) Linking an action, an outcome, and a change in the likelihood of future action
C) Classical conditioning principles
D) Passive observation of reflexive reactions
B) Linking an action, an outcome, and a change in the likelihood of future action
How does the law of effect differ from classical conditioning?
A) It involves passive observation.
B) It focuses on unconscious processes.
C) It emphasizes the link between actions, outcomes, and future actions.
D) It relies on reflexes without any conscious involvement.
C) It emphasizes the link between actions, outcomes, and future actions.
According to E. L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect, what does it explain about behavior?
A) It explains the complexity of behavior in any given situation.
B) It outlines the variety of potential acts in a situation.
C) It accounts for the regularities in behavior based on satisfying outcomes.
D) It focuses on the occasional occurrence of acts.
C) It accounts for the regularities in behavior based on satisfying outcomes.
In a given situation, why do some acts occur with great regularity, according to Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
A) Due to random chance
B) Because they are inherently satisfying
C) Because they are followed by dissatisfying outcomes
D) Based on classical conditioning principles
B) Because they are inherently satisfying
What distinguishes acts that occur with great regularity, others that happen once and disappear, and ones that only occur occasionally
A) Their inherent complexity
B) The frequency of their occurrence
C) The outcomes following the act
D) Their association with classical conditioning
C) The outcomes following the act
How does Thorndike’s Law of Effect contribute to understanding behavior?
A) By emphasizing the rarity of certain acts
B) By providing a simple and profound explanation for behavior regularities
C) By focusing on the role of classical conditioning in behavior
D) By ignoring the influence of outcomes on behavior
B) By providing a simple and profound explanation for behavior regularities
The ordering of a person’s potential responses by their likelihood
A) reinforcement hierarchy
B) routine hierarchy
C) habit hierarchy
D) none of the above
C) habit hierarchy
How does a habit hierarchy evolve, according to Miller and Dollard (1941)?
A) It is determined by random chance.
B) It is based on the inherent complexity of behaviors.
C) The order of responses derives from prior conditioning.
D) It is influenced solely by classical conditioning principles.
C) The order of responses derives from prior conditioning.
What determines the likelihood of responses in a habit hierarchy?
A) The inherent satisfaction of responses
B) Random shifts in the form of the hierarchy
C) The complexity of behavioral patterns
D) Prior conditioning and the satisfaction of outcomes
D) Prior conditioning and the satisfaction of outcomes
Why are some responses more likely (higher on the hierarchy) than others?
A) Due to random chance
B) Because of their inherent complexity
C) Because they are often followed by more satisfying outcomes
D) Based on classical conditioning principles
C) Because they are often followed by more satisfying outcomes
How does the form of the habit hierarchy change over time?
A) Randomly
B) Due to inherent complexities in responses
C) As a result of shifts in outcome patterns
D) Independent of the satisfaction of outcomes
C) As a result of shifts in outcome patterns
what does the term primary reinforcer denote
A) A secondary reinforcer
B) An artificial reward
C) A punishment stimulus
D) Diminishing a biological need
D) Diminishing a biological need
what has acquired reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer (through classical conditioning) or by virtue of the fact that it can be used to get primary reinforcers
A) punisher
B) primary conditioning
C) secondary reinforcer
D) conditioning
C) secondary reinforcer
Punishment that are intrinsically aversive are known as
A) Extrinsic punishment
B) Secondary punisher
C) Negative reinforcement
D) Primary punisher
D) Primary punisher
discrimination when applied to instrumental conditioning results from
A) variations in prior reinforcement or punishment
B) generalisation
C) weakening of conditioned responses
D) turning behaviour on and off
A) variations in prior reinforcement or punishment