Exam 2 Flashcards
(233 cards)
1
Q
Functions of blood?
A
Transport, protection, and regulation
2
Q
What does blood regulate?
A
Fluid balance, pH, and temperature
3
Q
Normal blood pH?
A
7.35 to 7.45
4
Q
Components of blood?
A
Plasma and blood cells
5
Q
Components of plasma?
A
Proteins, clotting factors, mostly water
6
Q
What are thrombocytes?
A
Platelets
7
Q
Solids in plasma?
A
Nutrients, electrolytes, hormones, gases
8
Q
What is the buffy coat?
A
White blood cells and platelets
9
Q
Blood percentages?
A
55% plasma, 1% buffy coat, 45% erythrocytes
10
Q
Major categories of plasma proteins?
A
Albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen
11
Q
What is albumin responsible for?
A
Blood viscosity and osmolarity
12
Q
What are globulins responsible for?
A
Antibodies
13
Q
What is fibrinogen responsible for?
A
Precursor of fibrin threads
14
Q
Formed elements of blood?
A
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes
15
Q
What are the different leukocytes?
A
Lymphocytes, monocytes, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils
16
Q
What is hemopoiesis?
A
AKA hematopoiesis, blood cell production
17
Q
Where does hemopoiesis occur in adults?
A
Red bone marrow of axial skeleton, girdles, proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur
18
Q
Where does hemopoiesis occur in children?
A
All red bone marrow
19
Q
What are pluripotent stem cells?
A
PPSCs, they give rise to the formed elements
20
Q
Steps of RBC maturation?
A
Erythroblasts multiply and synthesize hemoglobin, nucleus is discarded, and they then become erythrocytes
21
Q
2 principal functions of erythrocytes?
A
Carry oxygen from lungs to tissues, and pick up carbon dioxide from tissues and bring to lungs
22
Q
What is different about erythrocytes from average cells?
A
They lack mitochondria and are filled with hemoglobin for gas transport
23
Q
Components of hemoglobin?
A
Globins, protein chains, and heme groups, nonproteins
24
Q
What do heme groups do?
A
Bind oxygen to ferrous ion of iron
25
What is needed for RBC production?
Iron
26
What is ferritin?
Excess iron stored in the liver
27
What is transferrin?
Protein that binds to iron and transports it around the body
28
Average hematocrit in men and women?
Men - 42-52%
Women - 37-48%
29
Average hemoglobin concentration in men and women?
Men - 13-18 g/dL
Women - 12-16 g/dL
30
Ways to count erythrocytes and hemoglobin quantities?
Hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, RBC count
31
How is erythrocyte homeostasis controlled?
Negative feedback
32
What happens to dying RBCs?
Macrophages engulf them in the spleen and liver
33
What happens to globins when RBCs are broken down?
They are turned into amino acids
34
What happens to heme groups when RBCs are broken down?
Iron is removed and saved
35
What happens to heme pigment when RBCs are broken down?
They get turned into bilirubin, which is yellow
36
What is polycythemia?
Excess RBCs
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What is secondary polycythemia?
Excess RBCs from dehydration, physical conditioning, emphysema. Not as high as primary though
38
What can cause anemia?
Inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin synthesis
39
What are hemorrhagic anemias?
Anemia caused by bleeding
40
What are hemolytic anemias?
Anemia caused by RBC destruction
41
Consequences of anemia?
Tissue hypoxia and necrosis, reduced blood osmolarity causing edema, low blood viscosity causing heart rate and pressure drop
42
What is sickle cell disease?
A hereditary hemoglobin defect caused by a recessive allele
43
Another name for antigens?
Agglutinogens
44
Another name for antibodies?
Agglutinins
45
What are antigens/agglutinogens?
Things on cells that determine your blood type. Antigen A and B
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What are antibodies/agglutinins?
Things in the blood that attack antigens. Anti-A and anti-B
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Universal recipient?
AB+, most rare
48
Universal donor?
O-, also the most common
49
What are D antigens?
They determine if you're positive or not
50
What happens when Rh-negative mothers have Rh-positive babies?
First one causes the body to make anti-D antibodies, so the next baby will have their antigens be attacked
51
What can help stop formation of anti-D antibodies?
RhoGAM
52
How long are leukocytes in the bloodstream?
Only a few hours, then they migrate into connective tissue - lymph tissue
53
What do myeloblasts do?
Make neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
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What do monoblasts do?
Make monocytes
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Components of leukopoiesis?
Myeloblasts, monoblasts, and lymphoblasts
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What do lymphoblasts do?
Make lymphocytes
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Where do lymphocytes finish development?
Thymus
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What do lymphocytes do?
Provide immunity that lasts decades
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What do neutrophils do?
Fight bacterial infections
60
What do eosinophils do?
Fight parasitic infections
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What do basophils do?
Secrete histamine, a vasodilator, and heparin, an anticoagulant
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What are the granulocytes?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
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What are the agranulocytes?
Lymphocytes and monocytes
64
What do platelets do?
Secrete vasoconstrictors, procoagulants, chemicals to attract neutrophils, and growth factors
65
What is hemostasis?
Cessation of bleeding
66
What is coagulation of the extrinsic pathway?
Thromboplastin
67
What is coagulation of the intrinsic pathway?
Hageman factor
68
What is a thrombus?
A clot
69
What is an embolus?
Anything that can travel and block blood vessels
70
Go fill in the chapter 19 concept check
Done
71
Leukocytes from most to least numerous?
Neutrophils > lymphocytes > monocytes > eosinophils > basophils
72
What is needed for blood clotting?
Calcium and vitamin K
73
What is hypoplastic anemia?
Decline in erythropoiesis
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What is aplastic anemia?
Cessation of erythropoiesis
75
Mechanisms of hemostasis?
Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation
76
What is hemophilia?
When you can't make an effective clot so you bleed for longer
77
What is thrombocytopenia?
Abnormally low platelet count
78
What is fibrinolysis?
Breakdown of clots in blood
79
What is plasmin?
An enzyme that breaks up blood clots
80
How much of plasma is water?
90%
81
Blood pressure formula?
BP = cardiac output x systemic vascular resistance
82
What triggers under low oxygen levels?
Erythropoietin
83
How do babies develop jaundice?
Their RBCs have a shorter lifespan so more bilirubin accumulates
84
What determines SVR?
Vessel radius
85
Where is the heart?
In the mediastinum, between the lungs
86
Base of the heart?
At the top, wide
87
Apex of the heart?
Tapered, lower, left-pointing end of the heart
88
What circuit is the left side of the heart?
Systemic
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What circuit is the right side of the heart?
Pulmonary
90
What is the systemic circuit?
Blood to the whole body
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What is the pulmonary circuit?
Blood to the lungs
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What is the pericardial sac/parietal pericardium?
Fibrous and serous layers with pericardial cavity between
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What is pericarditis?
Painful inflammation of the pericardial membranes
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What is visceral pericardium/epicardium?
Serous membrane covering the heart
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Valves of the heart?
2 Atrioventricular and 2 semilunar
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What is the S1 sound?
Closure of AV valves, lubb
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What is the S2 sound?
Closure of semilunar valves, dupp
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What is valvular stenosis?
Stiffened cusps, constricting opening and increasing the afterload
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What is a mitral valve prolapse?
One or both mitral valve cusps bulge into atria during ventricular contraction
100
How many heart chambers?
4
101
What separates atria from ventricles?
Coronary sulcus
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What separates the left and right ventricles?
Anterior and posterior interventricular sulci
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Branches of the right coronary artery?
Right marginal branch and posterior interventricular branch
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Branches of the left coronary artery?
Anterior interventricular branch and circumflex branch
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How does the heart make ATP?
Aerobic respiration, allowing it to be fatigue resistant
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What is angina pectoris?
Chest pain from partial obstruction of coronary blood flow
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What does the coronary sinus collect blood from?
Great cardiac vein, middle cardiac vein, and left marginal vein
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Physiology of cardiac muscle?
Cardiomyocytes, and joined at the ends by intercalated discs
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How do cardiomyocytes join?
Mechanical junctions (desmosomes) and electrical junctions (gap junctions)
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What does autorhythmic mean?
The heart doesn't depend on the nervous system for its rhythm
111
What coordinates the heartbeat?
Conducting system, electrical stimulation
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What is the sinoatrial node?
Modified cardiomyocytes acting as a pacemaker
113
Cardiomyocyte action potential stages?
Depolarization phase, plateau phase, and repolarization phase
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What does the AV node branch into?
The AV bundle, or bundle of His
115
What do Purkinje fibers do?
Conduct electrical impulses, allowing for coordinated contraction of cardiac muscle
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What is a systole?
Contraction
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What is a diastole?
Relaxation
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What is a cardiac cycle?
One complete contraction and relaxation of all 4 chambers of the heart
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Variables governing fluid movement?
Pressure (causes flow) and resistance (opposes flow)
120
Formula for cardiac output?
Heart rate x stroke volume
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Variables governing stroke volume?
Preload, contractility, and afterload
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What is tachycardia?
Resting adult heart rate above 100bpm
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What is bradycardia?
Resting adult heart rate below 60bpm
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What is pulse?
Surge of pressure produced by heart beat
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What is the cardiac center?
In the medulla oblongata, it can have a cardiostimulatory effect via sympathetic pathway or cardioinhibitory effect via parasympathetic pathway
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Intrinsic rate of the SA node?
100bpm
127
Vagal tone of the heart?
70-80bpm
128
What is preload?
Stretch
129
What are inotropic agents?
Agents that increase or reduce contractility
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What is afterload?
Sum of forces opposing ejection of blood from ventricle
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What is cor pulmonale?
Right ventricular failure due to pulmonary vasoconstriction
132
Do the chapter 19 concept check
Done
133
What is between the right atrium and right ventricle?
The tricuspid valve
134
What makes up the bulk of the heart wall?
Myocardium
135
What happens during the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave?
Depolarization of atria, depolarization of ventricles, repolarization of ventricles
136
How long is the refractory period of cardiac muscle compared to skeletal muscle?
Longer
137
What is fibrillation?
Serious arrhythmia caused by uncoordinated, irregular electrical activity in the ventricles
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Systemic circuit pathway?
Left ventricle -> aorta -> venae cavae -> right atrium
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Pulmonary circuit pathway?
Right ventricle -> pulmonary arteries -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium
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Conducting system of the heart pathway?
SA node -> AV node -> bundle of His -> bundle branches -> Purkinje Fibers
141
What does the heart being myogenic mean?
Signal for contraction originates within the heart itself
142
What is ventricular filling?
Ventricles fill with blood during diastole
143
What is isovolumetric contraction?
During systole, ventricles reach max blood volume
144
What is ventricular ejection?
During systole, blood is ejected from heart
145
What is isovolumetric relaxation?
During diastole, blood volume is at its lowest
146
What is end diastolic volume?
Maximal amount of blood possible in ventricles
147
What is end systolic volume?
Lowest amount of blood possible in ventricles
148
What is congestive heart failure?
Failure of either ventricle to eject blood effectively
149
Route of blood through heart?
Heart -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins. Only 1 network of capillaries
150
What are portal systems?
When blood passes through 2 consecutive capillary networks interconnected by a vein. 3 in the body
151
Are veins low or high pressure?
Low
152
Are arteries low or high pressure?
High
153
Where do arteries carry blood?
Away from the heart
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Where do veins carry blood?
Back to the heart
155
What do capillaries do?
Connect the smallest arteries and veins
156
Alternative name for arteries?
Resistance vessels
157
Types of arteries?
Elastic/large, muscular/medium, small
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What do small arteries do?
Control amount of blood to organs and vasomotion
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What does the tunica interna of arteries do?
Act as a selectively permeable barrier, repelling blood cells and containing endothelium and basement membrane
160
What does the tunica media of arteries do?
Consists of smooth muscle, collagen, and elastic tissue and controls vasomotion
161
What are vasa vasorum?
In the tunica externa, small vessels that supply blood to outer half of larger vessels
162
What are the aortic and carotid bodies?
Chemoreceptors
163
What are the aortic and carotid sinuses?
Baroreceptors
164
What factors influence peripheral/systemic vascular resistance?
Blood viscosity, vessel length, vessel radius, flow characteristics
165
Most powerful control over peripheral resistance?
Vessel radius
166
Only site where nutrients, wastes, and hormones are exchanged between blood and tissue fluid?
Capillaries
167
Capillary types?
Continuous, fenestrated, sinusoids
168
Traits of continuous capillaries?
Least permeable, found in most tissues, they contract and regulate blood flow
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Traits of fenestrated capillaries?
They're found in the kidneys and small intestine
170
Traits of sinusoid capillaries?
Most permeable, found in liver, bone marrow, and spleen. Allow large proteins and vblood cells through
171
Mechanisms of capillary exchange?
Diffusion, transcytosis, filtration and reabsorption
172
Traits of diffusion?
Lipid-soluble go through plasma membrane, and lipid-soluble substances go through filtration pores and intercellular clefts
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What is transcytosis for?
Fatty acids, albumin, and hormones like insulin
174
Traits of filtration and reabsorption?
For water-soluble substances
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What is blood hydrostatic pressure?
Drives fluid out of capillary
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What is colloid osmotic pressure?
Draws fluid into capillary
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What is interstitial hydrostatic pressure?
Negative pressure from lymphatic system
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What is tissue osmotic pressure?
Proteins present in tissue pulls fluid from capillaries
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What is edema?
Accumulation of excess fluid in a tissue
180
What is pulmonary edema?
A suffocation threat
181
What is cerebral edema?
Headaches, nausea, seizures, coma
182
Types of veins?
Postcapillary venules, medium veins, large veins
183
Another name for veins?
Capacitance vessels
184
Mechanisms of venous return?
Pressure gradient, muscular pump, thoracic pump, gravity, cardiac suction
185
What is venous return?
Flow of blood back to heart
186
Ways to control vasomotion?
Local control, neural control, hormonal control
187
How does local control affect vasomotion?
Tissue releases vasodilators
188
What is autoregulation?
The ability of tissues to self-regulate their own blood supply
189
What causes inflammation?
Vasodilation
190
What is reactive hyperemia?
When blood supply is cut off and restored, flow increases above normal
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What is angiogenesis?
Growth of new blood vessels
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What is pulse pressure?
Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure
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What is mean arterial pressure?
Diastolic pressure + 1/3rd of pulse pressure
194
Why is MAP important?
Influences risk for edema, fainting, atherosclerosis, and kidneys failure, plus acts as a measure for how good circulation is
195
What is hypertension?
High blood pressure. Primary and secondary (secondary rarer, concurrent w/ disease)
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What is an aneurysm?
Weak point in artery or heart wall, making sac that may rupture
197
What is a dissecting aneurysm?
Blood accumulates between tunics of artery and separates them. Common in abdominal aorta, renal arteries, and arterial circle at base of brain
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What is a transient ischemic attack?
Brief episode of cerebral ischemia
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What is a stroke/cerebral vascular accident?
Sudden death of brain tissue caused by ischemia
200
What is circulatory shock?
Cardiac output is insufficient to meet body's metabolic needs
201
What is cardiogenic shock?
Inadequate pumping of heart causing low CO
202
What is hypovolemic shock?
Most common, loss of blood volume causing low CO
203
What is neurogenic shock?
Loss of vasomotor tone and vasodilation
204
What is septic shock?
Bacterial toxins triggering vasodilation and increased capillary permeability
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What is anaphylactic shock?
Immune reaction to an antigen, causing generalized vasodilation and increased capillary permeability
206
Do the chapter 20 concept check
Done
207
What blood vessel holds the greatest volume of blood?
Veins
208
Where does blood flow into capillary beds from?
Metarterioles
209
What hormone can cause a drop in BP?
Histamine
210
Why is blood flow faster in venules than capillaries?
Larger diameters
211
Longest blood vessel?
Great saphenous vein
212
What blood vessels have valves?
Veins
213
Where is blood flow pulsatile and steady?
Pulsatile in arteries, steady in veins and capillaries
214
What is orthostatic hypotension?
Temporary low BP and dizziness when suddenly standing
215
What is arteriosclerosis?
Hardening of arteries
216
What is atherosclerosis?
Growth of lipid deposits in arterial walls
217
What is net filtration pressure?
Opposing forces between hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure
218
What is oncotic pressure?
Difference between colloid osmotic pressure of blood and tissue fluid
219
What is primary polycythemia?
Overproduction of RBCs due to mutation or biological factor
220
Vein types (large to small)?
Large, medium, and venules (small)
221
Artery types (large to small)?
Conducting, distributing, arteriole
222
What do veins have that other blood vessels don't?
Valves
223
Blood pressure equation?
Cardiac output x systemic vascular resistance
224
Effect of vasomotion on SVR?
Vasoconstriction raises SVR, vasodilation lowers SVR
225
Cardiac output equation?
Heart rate x stroke volume
226
What supplies the blood vessels with oxygen?
Vasa vasorum
227
What are some hormones of vasomotion?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine and angiotensin II cause vasoconstriction
228
What are some hormones of water retention?
Aldosterone - raises
ANP - lowers
ADH - raises
229
What is turbulent flow?
Fast flow that builds up resistance
230
What is laminar flow?
Slow flow that does not build resistance
231
Another name for SVR?
Peripheral vascular resistance
232
What is a thoroughfare channel?
A long blood vesel between artery and vein where blood flows when precapillary sphincters are constricted
233
