Exam 4 Flashcards
(199 cards)
1
Q
What are the 4 tissue layers of the digestive tract, from innermost to outermost?
A
Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa
2
Q
What is the mucosa layer of the digestive tract?
A
The innermost, it lines the lumen and contains MALT for lymphatic function and capillaries for absorption
3
Q
What is the submucosa layer of the digestive tract?
A
Loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Mucus-secreting glands dump mucus into the lumen
4
Q
What are the layers of the muscularis externa of the digestive tract?
A
Inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer
5
Q
What is the inner circular layer of the muscularis externa?
A
Contains sphincters which regulate the passage of material through the tract
6
Q
What is the outer longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa?
A
Motility propels food and residue through the tract
7
Q
What is the serosa layer of the digestive tract?
A
Outermost. Areolar tissue
8
Q
What are dentition?
A
Teeth
9
Q
What are the regions of the tooth?
A
Crown, root, neck (and root canal)
10
Q
What is the crown of a tooth?
A
The portion above the gum
11
Q
What is the root of a tooth?
A
The portion below the gum
12
Q
What is the neck of a tooth?
A
The point where the crown, root, and gum meet
13
Q
What is a root canal?
A
A canal leading from the roots to the pulp cavity in the crown
14
Q
What are the extrinsic salivary glands?
A
Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
15
Q
Components of saliva?
A
97-99.5% water, salivary amylase, lingual lipase, lysozyme, and IgA
16
Q
What does salivary amylase do?
A
It’s an enzyme that begins starch digestion in the mouth
17
Q
What does lingual lipase do?
A
Digests fat
18
Q
What do lysozyme and IgA do?
A
Enzymes that kill bacteria
19
Q
What is the blood sugar between and after a meal?
A
Between - hypoglycemic
After- hyperglycemic
20
Q
What is the uvula?
A
Protrusion of the soft palate hanging in the back of the throat
21
Q
What is the epiglottis?
A
A flap which covers the trachea during swallowing so food doesn’t enter the airway
22
Q
What are pharyngeal tonsils?
A
AKA the adenoids
23
Q
What are gastric pits?
A
Filled with parietal cells which produce hydrochloric acid (or HCl) for converting pepsinogen into pepsin, which digests proteins, and intrinsic factor, for absorbing vitamin B12
24
Q
What is the pathway of G cells of the stomach?
A
G cells stimulate chief cells, food comes to stomach, elevated pH comes to gastric pits, stimulates G cells as stomach stretches out
25
Difference between ingestion and digestion?
Ingestion is the intake of food, digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a form usable by the body
26
What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?
Mechanical physically breaks food down, chemical degrades molecular structure and follows mechanical digestion
27
What are the 3 main macromolecules?
Carbs, proteins, and fats
28
What do carbs break down into?
Monosaccharides
29
What do proteins break down into?
Amino acids
30
What do fats break down into?
Monoglycerides and fatty acids
31
What has to be done to polysaccharides?
They have to be broken down into monosaccharides
32
What are the 3 phases of the gastric process?
Cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase
33
What happens during the cephalic phase of the gastric process?
The stomach controlled by the brain - responds to sight, smell, taste, and thought of food using acetylcholine
34
What happens during the gastric phase of the gastric process?
Swallowed food and semi-digested protein activate gastric activity because food stretches the stomach
35
What happens during the intestinal phase of the gastric process?
The stomach controlled by the small intestine. Duodenum responds to arriving chyme and moderates gastric activity via hormones and nervous reflexes
36
What sphincter separates the large intestine and small intestine?
The ileocecal sphincter
37
Parts of the large intestine?
Ascending, transverse, and descending
38
Purpose of HCl?
Converts pepsinogen to pepsin, which comes from chief cells
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What do chief cells secrete?
Pepsinogen and intrinsic factor
40
What does a lack of intrinsic factor cause?
Pernicious anemia
41
Different regions of the stomach?
Cardia, near tube leading in. Fundus, at top of stomach. Body, the majority. Pyloris, at bottom of stomach
42
What is mastication?
Chewing
43
Difference between hard and soft palate?
Hard is anterior. Soft is posterior, contains uvula, and helps retain food in mouth
44
Digestive organs?
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
45
Accessory organs of the digestive system?
Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
46
Function of mouth?
Ingestion and chewing and chemical/mechanical digestion
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Function of pharynx?
Allows entrance of air from nasal cavity to larynx where swallowing occurs
48
What is deglutition?
Swallowing
49
Function of the esophagus?
Brings food into stomach
50
Function of stomach?
Mechanically break up food particles (using oblique muscle), liquefy food and begin chemical digestion of protein and fat
51
What is chyme?
Soupy or pasty mixture of semi-digested food in the stomach
52
Regions of the small intestine?
Duodenum - top
Jejunum - middle
Ileum - bottom
53
Function of small intestine?
Chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
54
What is peristalsis?
Movement of contents towards colon
55
What is segmentation?
Churning and mixing for digestion
56
Function of large intestine?
Water reabsorption. Squeezes it out to turn the remnants into feces
57
What are haustral contractions?
Every 30m, they squeeze water out of chyme
58
What are mass movements?
Occurring 1-3 times a day, peristaltic waves moving food toward the rectum
59
Teeth function?
Mechanically digest food
60
Tongue function and makeup?
Manipulation of food. Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
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Salivary glands function?
Helps digest starches and fats and kill bacteria
62
Liver functions?
Stores food. Breaks down stored glycogen to release glucose into blood between meals. Synthesizes bile. Secretes albumin, lipoproteins, clotting factors, and angiotensinogen into blood
63
Gallbladder functions?
Stores and concentrates bile
64
What does bile do?
Aid in fat digestion and absorption
65
Pancreas function?
Acini release a secretion into the pancreatic duct which is enzymes which digest starch and fat
66
What is ingestion?
Intake of food
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What is digestion?
Mechanical and chemical digestion of food into a form usable by the body
68
What is absorption?
Uptake of nutrient molecules into epithelial cells of digestive tract, and then blood and lymph. Moves food from the outside of the body to the inside of the body
69
What is compaction?
Absorbing water and consolidating indigestible residue into feces
70
What is defecation?
Elimination of feces
71
What is the lesser omentum?
It attaches the stomach to the liver
72
What is the greater omentum?
It covers the small intestines like an apron
73
What nutrients do not require digestion?
Vitamins, free amino acids, minerals, cholesterol, water
74
A 38-year-old male is upset about his low sperm count and visits a “practitioner” who commonly advertises his miracle cures of sterility. The practitioner is a quack who treats conditions of low sperm count with mega doses of testosterone. Although his patients experience a huge surge in libido, their sperm count is even lower after hormone treatment. Explain the surge in libido and the lower sperm count.
1) Sperm is produced when gonadotropin hormone-releasing hormone stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH. 2) While it is true that testosterone is a part of the process of sperm production, FSH and LH are also needed in this process. 3) Therefore, prescribing only testosterone will not serve to raise sperm count. 4) It will, however, raise libido as described when on its’ own as this is a function of testosterone. 5) This excess testosterone also reduces the secretion of gonadotropin hormone-releasing hormone, inhibiting the release of FSH and LH, and therefore preventing the production of sperm.
75
Explain how the 28-day birth-control pill works. How does the pill affect the female menstrual cycle and how does it affect the hormones of the reproductive system?
1) Birth controls have progesterone and estradiol which are taken for 21 days, followed by 1 week of placebo pills with no hormones. 2) The placebo pills trigger breakthrough bleeding due to the drop in hormones. 3) Having higher levels of estrogen and progesterone for 21 days due to the hormonal pills overrides the hormonal cycling that occurs naturally during the menstrual cycle. 4) The pills suppress release of FSH and LH, making the body believe the woman is pregnant and therefore suppressing the menstrual cycle. 5) This prevents ovulation, preventing menstruation as well
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Pathway of sperm?
Seminiferous tubules -> epididymis -> vas deferens -> ejaculatory duct -> urethra -> penis
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4 divisions of intercourse?
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
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What happens during excitement of a male?
Vasocongestion, erection of penis, myotonia, increase in heart and respiratory rate and blood pressure, bulbourethral glands secrete their fluid
79
What does bulbourethral gland fluid do?
Lubricate head of penis and reduce acidic environment of the urethra for sperm to survive
80
What happens during plateau of males and females?
Respiratory rate heart, rate, and blood pressure stay at their raised levels for a bit before orgasm
81
What happens during orgasm in males?
Emission and expulsion. Emission propels sperm through ducts and glandular secretions are added, expulsion is semen exiting body
82
What happens during resolution of males and females?
Body returns to pre-excitement state
83
Function of male reproductive system?
Produce sperm and hormones to introduce gametes into female reproductive tract
84
What are gametes?
Sex cells
85
What is an ovum?
Mature egg
86
What is an oocyte?
Immature egg
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Function of female reproductive system?
Produce eggs, receive sperm, provide for union of gametes, harbors fetus, nourishes offspring
88
What are the gonads?
Primary sex organs. Testes and ovaries. Produce gametes
89
What are secondary sex organs?
Organs that are also necessary for reproduction
90
Male secondary sex organs?
Ducts, glands, penis
91
Female secondary sex organs?
Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina
92
What are secondary sex characteristics?
Features that distinguish between sexes and play a role in mate attraction
93
Male secondary sex characteristics?
Facial hair, coarse and visible body hair, muscular physique
94
Female secondary sex characteristics?
Distribution of body fat, breast enlargement, hairless skin
95
Sperm is highly…
Motile
96
What sperm makes males and females?
Male - Y-carrying sperm
Female - X-carrying sperm
97
Egg contains..
Nutrients for developing embryo
98
Stages of a baby?
Zygote -> embryo -> fetus -> birth!!!! -> neonate -> infant -> child
99
What is a zygote?
A fertilized egg formed from male and female gametes' combination
100
What happens to the fetus at 5-6 weeks?
Gonads begin to develop
101
What happens to fetus at 8-9 weeks?
Y chromosome in males starts making testosterone to stimulate development of male anatomy
102
What are homologous organs?
Ones that develop from the same embryonic structure in males and females. Ex: clitoris is homologous to the penis
103
Penis structure
1 corpus spongiosum and 2 corpus cavernosa which fill w/ blood during arousal and account for enlargement and erection
104
What is the scrotum?
A pouch of skin covering the testes and spermatic cord
105
What is the spermatic cord?
A bundle of fibrous connective tissue containing the vas deferens, blood and lymphatic vessels, and testicular nerve
106
What are the testes?
They reside in the scrotum and produce sperm
107
How does the scrotum regulate temperature and why?
Cremaster muscle, dartos muscle, and pampiniform plexus. Because the testes must be about 2 degrees cooler to produce sperm
108
How does the cremaster muscle regulate temperature of the scrotum?
In cold, it contracts and is held closer to the body for warmth. In heat, it relaxes and suspends testes further from the body
109
How does the dartos muscle regulate temperature of the scrotum?
Contracts when cold, wrinkling scrotum, holding testes against warm body. Reduces surface area of scrotum, and therefore, the heat loss
110
How does the pampiniform plexus muscle regulate temperature of the scrotum?
Network of veins, the blood cools
111
Structures of testes?
Spermatic cord, epididymis, vas deferens, efferent ductule, rete testis
112
What produces testosterone?
Interstitial cells of testes
113
What forms the blood-testis barrier?
Gap junctions between sertoli cells
114
Components of semen?
Fructose, prostaglandins, proseminogelin, clotting enzyme, serine protease
115
What do seminal vesicles produce?
60% of semen components. Fructose, prostaglandins, proseminogelin
116
What does the prostate gland produce?
30% of semen components. Clotting enzyme and serine protease
117
What does GnRH stimulate release of in both males and females?
FSH and LH
118
What does FSH do in males?
Spermatogenesis
119
What does LH do in males?
Stimulate interstitial cells to produce testosterone
120
What does inhibin do?
Suppress FSH output, reducing sperm production without reducing LH and testosterone secretion
121
What is mitosis?
Making 2 diploid (2n) cells w/ 46 chromosomes
122
What is meiosis?
Making 4 haploid (1n) cells w/ 23 chromosomes
123
Do males or females use mitosis?
Only males, but both use meiosis
124
What is spermiogenesis?
Transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa
125
Sperm production pathway?
Seminiferous tubules -> rete testis -> efferent ductule -> epididymis -> vas deferens -> spermatic cord
126
Spermatozoon anatomy?
Head and tail
127
What is in the head of the spermatozoon?
Nucleus and an acrosome, which has enzymes to penetrate the egg
128
What is in the tail of the spermatozoon?
The midpiece which has mitochondria
129
What is coitus/copulation?
Sex
130
Functions of female reproductive system?
Produces and delivers gametes, provides nutrition and safe harbor for fetal development, gives birth, nourishes infant
131
What is the external genitalia of a female?
AKA the vulva, includes clitoris, labia minora, labia majora, and mons pubis
132
What is the clitoris?
An erectile sensory organ that has a prepuce (foreskin) covering it
133
What is the labia minora?
Hairless folds medial to the labia majora
134
What is the labia majora?
Hairy thick folds lateral to the labia minora
135
What is the mons pubis?
Fat with hair over the pubic symphysis
136
Internal genitalia for a female includes?
Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina
137
What are the ovaries?
They receive blood from 2 arteries (ovarian artery and ovarian branch of uterine artery) and cause ovulation
138
What is ovulation?
Bursting of follicle and release of egg
139
What are the uterine tubes?
AKA fallopian tubes, site of fertilization of oocyte
140
Anatomy of the uterus?
Perimetrium - external serosa
Myometrium - medial muscular layer
Endometrium - inner mucosa layer
141
What is the endometrium?
Site of attachment during pregnancy and forms maternal part of placenta
142
What do the breasts contain?
Mammary lands and the nipple
143
What are mammary glands?
Develop during pregnancy and are active in a lactating breast
144
What are the nipples?
A sensitive region with a lot of blood capillaries and nerves that trigger milk ejection when an infant nurses
145
What does FSH do in females?
Produce estrogens
146
What does LH do in females?
Ovulation
147
How can you remember FSH and LH in men and women?
They're opposites. FSH makes estrogen in females, LH makes testosterone in males. LH triggers ovulation in females, FSH triggers sperm production in males
148
What is oogenesis?
Egg production. Haploid gametes are made via meiosis
149
What does the sexual cycle include?
Ovarian cycle and menstrual cycle
150
When does the sexual cycle happen?
When not pregnant
151
What are the stages of the ovarian cycle?
Follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase
152
Go respond to all of the essay questions
Done
153
What happens during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle?
Menstruation occurs during the first few days
154
What happens during the ovulation phase of the ovarian cycle?
The remainder of the follicle becomes the corpus luteum
155
What happens during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle?
Endometrium thickens, corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone and prepares for possibility of pregnancy
If pregnant - HCG
If not pregnant - estradiol and progesterone
156
What are the stages of the menstrual cycle of the sexual cycle?
Premenstrual phase, menstrual phase, proliferative phase, secretory phase
157
What happens during the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle?
Endometrium degenerates and spiral arteries spasmodically contract
158
What happens during the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle?
Discharge of menstrual fluid from vagina
159
What happens during the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle?
Endometrium rebuilds
160
What happens during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle?
Endometrium keeps thickening in response to progesterone from corpus luteum
161
What happens during excitement of the female?
Uterus stands and vagina dilates, vasocongestion
162
What happens during the plateau of the female?
Uterus is erected and vagina constricts penis
163
What happens during orgasm of the female?
Orgasmic platform contracts rhythmically, uterus exhibits peristaltic contractions
164
What is the menarche?
The woman's first ever period
165
What is the gestation period?
Pregnancy, from conception to childbirth
166
How is birth predicted?
280 days from first day of last menstrual period
167
Hormones of pregnancy?
Estrogens, HCG (until corpus luteum degenerates), progesterone
168
How does the fetus move during gestation?
Into a head-down vertex position
169
What induces labor?
Stretching of the cervix
170
What can give women a false sense of labor?
Braxton Hicks contractions
171
What is parturition?
Process of giving birth
172
Stages of labor?
Dilation, expulsion, placental stage
173
What happens during the dilation stage of labor?
It lasts 8-24 hours and water breaks and the vagina dilates to up to 10cm
174
What happens during the expulsion stage of labor?
Lasts up to 30m, the baby crowns (head enters vagina) and is expelled
175
What happens during the placental stage of labor?
The uterus contracts and the placenta buckles away and is expelled from the uterus
176
What hormone stimulates spermatogenesis?
FSH and testosterone
177
What hormone stimulates production of testosterone?
LH
178
How can you reduce sperm production without reducing LH and testosterone secretion?
Inhibit FSH
179
What can inhibit GnRH in men and what happens?
Excess testosterone, and therefore FSH and LH get inhibited
180
What is fertilization?
Sperm and egg unite in fallopian tube to form zygote
181
What is implantation?
Egg attaches to endometrium
182
How many spermatids (and sperm) can 1 spermatogonium make?
4
183
Describe what hormones the hypothalamus makes in men
It makes GnRH, which targets the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH. LH makes testosterone, and once testosterone levels are high enough, the hypothalamus stops producing GnRH. FSH makes sperm
184
What would happen if you injected testosterone (as a male)?
You would shut off the hypothalamus (all of its work is done for it) from releasing GnRH to make FSH and LH, decreasing sperm count
185
What effect does LH have on the corpus luteum?
Stimulates it, increasing progesterone, which prepares the uterus for pregnancy (or gestation - pro, gest)
186
When does a female produce all of her eggs?
In the womb. Mitosis of eggs stops at birth
187
How many functional units does 1 germ cell turn into in males vs females?
1 germ cell turns into 4 sperm in males. 1 germ cell turns into 1 functional egg in females
188
When does the reproductive cycle happen?
When pregnant
189
What happens at the beginning of the ovarian cycle, and concurrently, at the beginning of the menstrual cycle?
Ovarian - FSH causes follicle to mature and secrete estrogen
Menstrual - estrogen builds endometrium
190
Where does the menstrual cycle occur?
In the uterus
191
What happens halfway into the ovarian cycle, and concurrently in the menstrual cycle?
Ovarian - Spike in LH triggers ovulation and release of progesterone
Menstrual - increase in progesterone continues building up endometrium
192
What happens from halfway to the end of the ovarian cycle, and concurrently in the menstrual cycle?
Ovarian - LH declines and corpus luteum shrinks and stops releasing progesterone
Menstrual - Progesterone drops and endometrium deteriorates. Spiral organs vasoconstrict and shut off blood flow to uterus, which begins to die and cause menstrual cramps. Afterwards, dead tissue is menstruated out
193
What is responsible for period cramps?
The spiral organs, which vasoconstrict when the endometrium deteriorates and restrict blood flow to the uterus
194
195
What phases deteriorate the uterus?
Premenstrual and menstrual
196
Explain how the 28-day period cycle works.
Hypothalamus secretes GnRh, stimulating release of LH and FSH. FSH causes estrogen synthesis and LH causes ovulation. Ovulation causes corpus luteum to degenerate and secrete progesterone, but once LH declines, it shrinks and stops secreting progesterone, which makes the endometrium degenerate. Which in turn causes spiral organs to shut off blood flow. And then the dead tissue resulting from that is menstruated out
197
How does birth control work?
The pill contains estrogen and progesterone. The estrogen causes GnRH to stop being secreted, stopping synthesis of FSH so follicle doesn't mature, decreasing chances of ovulation. The progesterone suppresses LH synthesis, which is also responsible for triggering ovulation
198
What takes the place of LH in maintaining the endometrium in pregnant women?
HCG
199
What phases of the menstrual and ovarian cycles overlap?
Idk
