Module 11 AI cards Flashcards
1
Q
What is the primary function of the heart?
A
Pumps blood into the arteries of the systemic and pulmonary circulation
The heart is a vital organ that circulates blood throughout the body.
2
Q
What are the receiving chambers of the heart called?
A
Atria (singular atrium)
The atria receive blood returning to the heart from the body and lungs.
3
Q
What are the pumping chambers of the heart?
A
Ventricles
The ventricles pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body.
4
Q
What is the combining form for blood vessels?
A
Angi(o)-, vas(o)-, vascul(o)-
These forms relate to the structure and function of blood vessels.
5
Q
What is the primary function of arteries?
A
Transport blood away from the heart
Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the tissues.
6
Q
What is the primary function of veins?
A
Transport blood back to the heart
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.
7
Q
What are capillaries?
A
Microscopic vessels that are the site of the exchange of gases, nutrients, water, and waste products inside the tissue
Capillaries connect arterioles and venules, facilitating exchange at the cellular level.
8
Q
What does systemic circulation do?
A
Carries blood from the heart to all the organs and tissues of the body, except for the lungs, and back to the heart
This is the major circulation pathway for delivering oxygen and nutrients.
9
Q
What does pulmonary circulation do?
A
Carries blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
This circulation is essential for oxygenating blood.
10
Q
What is the normal size of the heart?
A
Approximately the size of a fist
The heart’s size can vary somewhat between individuals.
11
Q
What is the average weight of the heart?
A
9-10 ounces
The weight may differ based on individual factors such as body size.
12
Q
What is the purpose of the pericardium?
A
Protects and anchors the heart
The pericardium consists of a tough outer layer and a lining that reduces friction.
13
Q
What are the three layers of the heart wall?
A
Epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
Each layer has specific structural and functional roles.
14
Q
What separates the right and left atria?
A
Interatrial septum
This septum prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
15
Q
What separates the right and left ventricles?
A
Interventricular septum
This septum also prevents mixing of blood between the ventricles.
16
Q
What are the two atrioventricular valves called?
A
Tricuspid valve (right) and bicuspid/mitral valve (left)
These valves ensure one-way blood flow from the atria to the ventricles.
17
Q
What are the names of the semilunar valves?
A
Pulmonary valve (right) and aortic valve (left)
These valves prevent backflow into the ventricles after blood is ejected.
18
Q
What is the function of coronary circulation?
A
Supplies the heart muscle with blood, oxygen, and nutrients
This circulation is crucial for the heart’s own blood supply.
19
Q
What is the main pacemaker of the heart?
A
Sinoatrial node (SA node)
The SA node regulates the heart’s rhythm and pace.
20
Q
What is the function of the atrioventricular (AV) node?
A
Slows down the electrical signal before passing it to the ventricles
This delay allows the atria to fully contract before the ventricles begin to contract.
21
Q
What does an electrocardiogram (ECG) measure?
A
The electrical activity of the heart
ECGs provide vital information about heart rhythm and function.
22
Q
What does the P wave in an ECG represent?
A
The SA node sending signals to the AV node
This wave indicates atrial depolarization.
23
Q
What does the QRS complex in an ECG depict?
A
The spreading of the signal throughout the muscle cells of the interventricular septum and the ventricles
This complex represents ventricular depolarization.
24
Q
What does the T wave in an ECG indicate?
A
The muscle cells of the ventricles and septum resetting themselves for the next signal
This wave corresponds to ventricular repolarization.
25
Fill in the blank: The _______ is the main artery of the body.
Aorta
## Footnote
The aorta carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle to the body.
26
What does the ST segment represent in an ECG?
The stretch between the end of the QRS complex and the beginning of the T wave.
## Footnote
It indicates the period during which the ventricles are depolarized and is critical for assessing the heart's electrical activity.
27
What is the PQ interval commonly known as?
PR Interval.
## Footnote
It measures the time from the beginning of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS complex.
28
What indicates a normal sinus rhythm (NSR) on an ECG?
A recurrent picture of P wave, QRS complex, and T wave.
## Footnote
NSR shows that electric signals are generated in the SA node.
29
What are the phases of the cardiac cycle?
Systole and diastole.
## Footnote
Systole is the contraction phase, while diastole is the relaxation phase.
30
What is the first step of the cardiac cycle?
Filling the ventricles with blood.
## Footnote
This occurs during diastole when the AV valves open.
31
What generates the first heart sound (S1, lub)?
Turbulent blood flow when the atrioventricular valves have closed.
## Footnote
This sound occurs at the beginning of ventricular systole.
32
What leads to the second heart sound (S2, dub)?
Closure of the semilunar valves as the ventricles relax.
## Footnote
This sound is caused by blood trying to flow back into the ventricles.
33
What are heart murmurs?
Abnormal heart sounds caused by changes to the anatomy or function of the heart or heart valves.
## Footnote
They can indicate conditions like valve insufficiency or stenosis.
34
What is cardiac output (CO)?
The amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute.
## Footnote
The average CO at rest is 5.25 L/min for men and 4.5 L/min for women.
35
What are the two parts of the autonomic nervous system that affect heart rate?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
## Footnote
The sympathetic system increases heart rate, while the parasympathetic system decreases it.
36
What is the normal resting heart rate range?
60 bpm to 100 bpm.
## Footnote
The average resting heart rate is about 75 bpm.
37
What is the main function of arteries?
Carry blood away from the heart.
## Footnote
In systemic circulation, they carry oxygen-rich blood; in pulmonary circulation, they carry oxygen-depleted blood.
38
What is the role of capillaries?
Site of exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products.
## Footnote
They have thin walls for efficient exchange.
39
What is stroke volume?
The amount of blood ejected from the heart during ventricular systole.
## Footnote
The average stroke volume is about 70 ml/beat.
40
What are the three major branches of the aortic arch?
* Brachiocephalic trunk
* Left common carotid artery
* Left subclavian artery
## Footnote
These branches supply blood to the head, brain, and upper limbs.
41
What is the function of the hepatic portal system?
Drains blood from the digestive organs to the liver.
## Footnote
Blood is processed by the liver before exiting via the hepatic veins.
42
What is the primary function of veins?
Carry blood back to the heart.
## Footnote
Veins contain oxygen-depleted blood in systemic circulation and oxygen-rich blood in pulmonary circulation.
43
What type of blood do arteries carry in the pulmonary circulation?
Oxygen-depleted blood.
## Footnote
This contrasts with systemic circulation where arteries carry oxygen-rich blood.
44
What is the largest blood vessel in the human body?
Aorta.
## Footnote
It carries oxygen-rich blood away from the left ventricle.
45
What are the two main veins returning blood to the right atrium?
* Inferior vena cava
* Superior vena cava
## Footnote
They collect blood from below and above the diaphragm, respectively.
46
What is the difference between the pulmonary and systemic circulations?
* Pulmonary: Short loop, lower pressure, carries oxygen-depleted blood to lungs
* Systemic: Longer loop, higher pressure, carries oxygen-rich blood to body
## Footnote
The systemic circuit has a combined length of approximately 50,000 miles.
47
What collects blood from all organs and tissues located above the diaphragm?
Superior vena cava
## Footnote
Empties into the right atrium.
48
What collects blood from the cardiac tissue?
Coronary veins
## Footnote
Empties into the right atrium.
49
Which veins collect blood from the head and upper limb?
External jugular vein and vertebral vein
## Footnote
Collects blood from the head and upper limb.
50
Which veins collect blood from the head and brain?
Facial vein and ophthalmic veins
## Footnote
Includes dural venous sinuses.
51
What is formed by the fusion of the subclavian vein and internal jugular vein?
Brachiocephalic vein
52
What drains blood from the abdominal and thoracic wall?
Hemiazygos vein and accessory hemiazygos vein
53
Name the five main veins of the forearm.
Radial, ulnar, basilic, cephalic, median antebrachial vein
54
What do the radial and ulnar veins unite to form?
Brachial vein
55
What connects the basilic and cephalic veins on the anterior side of the elbow?
Median cubital vein
56
What are the two main deep veins of the lower leg?
Anterior and posterior tibial veins
57
What are the two superficial veins of the lower leg?
Small and great saphenous veins
58
What is the popliteal vein called above the popliteal fossa?
Femoral vein
59
Once inside the pelvis, what is the femoral vein called?
Internal iliac vein
60
What do the internal and external iliac veins form?
Common iliac vein
61
What do the two common iliac veins join to form?
Inferior vena cava
62
What drives blood flow through the vessels?
Pressure gradient
63
What generates pressure in the blood vessels?
Myocardium of the ventricles
64
What is blood pressure measured in?
mmHg
65
What are the two main circulations with differing blood pressures?
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
66
What is the highest blood pressure found in?
Aorta
67
What happens to blood pressure when cardiac output increases?
It increases
68
What is the term for the pressure difference between systolic and diastolic pressure?
Pulse pressure
69
What is the normal systolic blood pressure range for a rested, healthy adult?
100-140 mmHg
70
What is the normal diastolic blood pressure range for a rested, healthy adult?
70-90 mmHg
71
What are the two major factors aiding venous return?
* Respiratory pump
* Muscular pump
72
What does the autonomic nervous system do for short-term blood pressure control?
Changes the diameter of blood vessels
73
What hormone does the kidney release in low blood pressure situations?
Renin
74
What system does renin activate?
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
75
What hormone is released by the heart in high blood pressure situations?
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
76
What does perfusion refer to?
Blood flow through a vessel, organ, or entire circulation
77
What is the cardiac output at rest for men?
5.25 L/min
78
What is the cardiac output at rest for women?
4.5 L/min
79
What is the blood flow to the brain at rest?
700 mL/min
80
What is the blood flow to the heart at rest?
250 mL/min
81
What is the blood flow to the kidneys at rest?
1000 mL/min
82
What happens to blood flow in skin during cold conditions?
Decreases to as low as 50 mL/min
83
What is the effect of atherosclerosis on coronary arteries?
Reduces ability to dilate
84
What is the primary role of a cardiologist?
Diagnosing and treating disorders of the heart
85
What is the primary role of an angiologist?
Diagnosing and treating disorders of the blood vessels
86
What imaging technique is used to assess the structure and functions of the heart?
Echocardiography
87
What is digital subtraction angiography (DSA)?
Uses computer programs to improve visibility of blood vessels on X-rays
88
What is the purpose of cardiac catheterization?
To inject dye or unblock coronary arteries
89
What does nuclear cardiology use to visualize the heart?
Radioactive substances and a gamma camera
90
What is the purpose of a catheter in cardiac procedures?
To inject a special dye into the heart or to unblock coronary arteries.
91
What does nuclear cardiology utilize to analyze heart function?
Tiny amounts of radioactive substances and a gamma camera.
92
What is the main limitation of cardiac MRI?
Cannot be used in patients with an implanted pacemaker.
93
What is magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) used for?
To look specifically at blood vessels.
94
List some common blood tests used for myocardial infarction (MI).
* Troponin tests
* CK or CK–MB tests
* Serum myoglobin tests
95
What are antihypertensives used for?
To treat high blood pressure.
96
What do antiarrhythmics do?
Prevent or treat cardiac rhythm irregularities.
97
What is the function of diuretics?
Increase urine production and secretion.
98
What is the role of digitalis compounds?
Strengthen the heart muscle and prevent arrhythmias.
99
What are typical indications for surgical intervention in cardiovascular disorders?
* Congenital anomalies
* Heart valve defects
* Blocked coronary arteries
100
What is percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) commonly referred to as?
Angioplasty.
101
What are congenital heart defects?
Structural anomalies present at birth due to failure of normal heart development.
102
What are common clinical features in children with congenital heart defects?
* Heart murmurs
* Cyanosis
* Heart failure
103
What is coronary artery disease (CAD) caused by?
Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries.
104
What are atheromas?
Fatty plaques made of lipids, fibrous tissue, and inflammatory cells.
105
What is acute coronary syndrome (ACS)?
A range of conditions associated with a sudden disruption of blood flow to the heart muscle.
106
What does angina pectoris describe?
Severe chest pain often spreading to shoulders, arms, and neck.
107
What characterizes a myocardial infarction (MI)?
Ischemia of the myocardium leading to the death of heart muscle cells.
108
What is STEMI?
ST elevation myocardial infarction, characterized by ST segment elevation on ECG.
109
What is NSTEMI?
Non-ST elevation myocardial infarction, accounting for about 30% of heart attacks.
110
What is the primary goal in treating arrhythmias and infarcts?
To restore blood flow through the coronary arteries immediately.
111
What are the techniques used to restore coronary blood flow?
* Balloon angioplasty
* Stenting
* Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)
112
What is endocarditis?
Inflammation of the lining of the heart, often caused by bacteria.
113
What is mitral valve prolapse (MVP)?
A condition where the mitral valve protrudes under pressure, allowing blood to flow back into the left atrium.
114
What is congestive heart failure (CHF)?
A condition where the heart is unable to pump out blood as fast as it returns.
115
What causes left heart failure?
The left ventricle cannot keep up with blood flow from the lungs.
116
What are the symptoms of right heart failure?
* Ankle edema
* Swollen legs
* Hepatomegaly
* Splenomegaly
117
What is cardiomyopathy?
Diseases that affect the heart muscle (myocardium).
118
What is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?
A genetic disorder leading to pathological thickness of the heart wall.
119
What is the prognosis for congestive heart failure?
Can develop rapidly but often progresses slowly; adequate medication can alleviate symptoms.
120
What recent therapy has shown promise for heart failure?
Stem cell therapy using myocardial cells.
121
What is the main characteristic of heart failure?
Heart failure can develop rapidly and lead to death, but often progresses slowly with manageable symptoms.
122
What therapy has shown promise for heart failure patients?
Stem cell therapy using myocardial cells.
123
What is the only hope for survival for many heart failure patients?
Heart transplant.
124
What is carditis?
Inflammation of the heart.
125
What is myocarditis and what is its most common cause?
Myocarditis is inflammation of the myocardium, most often caused by viral infections.
126
What are common symptoms of myocarditis?
Fatigue and low-grade fever, or abrupt severe symptoms and chest pain.
127
What is a major long-term complication of myocarditis?
Chronic heart failure.
128
What is pericarditis?
Inflammation of the pericardium.
129
What can cause pericarditis?
Pathogens or often after myocardial infarction.
130
What is pericardial tamponade?
Fluid accumulation inside the pericardial cavity restricting heart filling.
131
What is rheumatic fever caused by?
Hypersensitivity reaction of the immune system after infection with certain bacteria.
132
What is the consequence of rheumatic fever on the heart?
Can lead to acute myocarditis and latent valvulitis.
133
What defines arrhythmia?
Any deviation from the normal heart rhythm and rate.
134
What is tachycardia?
A permanent increase in resting heart rate above 100 bpm.
135
What is bradycardia?
A heart rate of less than 60 bpm at rest.
136
What is atrial fibrillation (A fib)?
A condition where the walls of the atria twitch rapidly without a normal rhythm.
137
What is ventricular fibrillation (V fib)?
A life-threatening condition where ventricles twitch rapidly but do not pump blood.
138
What is the purpose of defibrillation?
To restore normal rhythm by applying an electrical shock to the heart.
139
What is the function of an artificial pacemaker?
To control arrhythmias that cannot be managed by medication.
140
What is an implantable cardioverter defibrillator?
A pacemaker that can also act as an automatic defibrillator.
141
What is peripheral vascular disease (PAD)?
A disorder mainly affecting arteries, causing symptoms due to lack of blood flow.
142
What is intermittent claudication?
Cramping, pain, or tiredness in the legs during activity, relieved by rest.
143
What is Raynaud’s phenomenon?
A condition affecting smaller arteries, causing intermittent attacks triggered by cold or stress.
144
What is Buerger’s disease?
A rare disorder affecting blood vessels, common in smokers, leading to inflammation and blockage.
145
What defines hypertension?
Long-term elevation of blood pressure above 120 mm Hg systolic and/or 80 mm Hg diastolic.
146
What is essential hypertension?
High blood pressure with no known cause, often linked to various risk factors.
147
What is malignant hypertension?
Severe high blood pressure (180/120 mm Hg or higher) posing a high risk for serious health complications.
148
What is hypotension?
Permanently low blood pressure with a systolic BP below 100 mm Hg.
149
What are varicose veins?
Abnormally swollen and twisting veins, especially in the legs.
150
What is chronic venous insufficiency (CVI)?
Impaired venous circulation leading to chronic venous disease, primarily affecting the legs.
151
What does chronic venous insufficiency (CVI) lead to?
Impaired venous circulation leading to chronic venous disease
## Footnote
CVI primarily affects the legs.
152
What are common symptoms of chronic venous insufficiency?
* Varicose veins
* Itching
* Hyperpigmentation
* Chronic swelling of the legs and ankles
* Skin ulcers
## Footnote
These symptoms indicate deterioration in venous health.
153
How can CVI caused by varicose veins be treated?
Treating the varicose veins will improve the CVI considerably
## Footnote
This highlights the importance of addressing underlying venous issues.
154
What is the focus of conservative treatment for CVI when varicose veins are not present?
Skin care
## Footnote
Conservative treatments aim to manage symptoms and prevent complications.
155
What is phlebitis?
Inflammation of a vein
## Footnote
Phlebitis usually affects superficial veins.
156
What condition can occur alongside phlebitis?
Thrombophlebitis
## Footnote
Thrombophlebitis is associated with thrombosis of a vein.
157
What is the primary cause of most cases of phlebitis?
Catheters inserted for the administration of intravenous drugs
## Footnote
This explains the commonality of phlebitis in clinical settings.
158
What typically happens to phlebitis cases after catheter removal?
They heal well
## Footnote
This indicates a good prognosis when the cause is addressed.
