Anatomy_ Tables Flashcards
(692 cards)
1
Q
superior (cranial)
A
toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
2
Q
inferior (caudal)
A
away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
3
Q
medial
A
toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
4
Q
lateral
A
away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
5
Q
proximal
A
closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
6
Q
distal
A
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
7
Q
ipsilateral
A
on the same side
8
Q
contralateral
A
on opposide sides
9
Q
anterior
A
toward or at the front of the body; in front of
10
Q
posterior
A
toward or at the back of the body; behind
11
Q
superficial
A
toward or at the body surface
12
Q
deep
A
away from the body surface; more internal
13
Q
plasma membrane
A
serves as an external cell barrier; acts in transport of substances into or out of the cell; externally facing proteins act as receptors (for hormones, neurotransmitters, etc) and in cell-to-cell recognition
14
Q
ribosomes
A
the sites of protein synthesis
15
Q
rough endoplasmic reticulum
A
“makes proteins that are secreted from the cell; makes the cell’s membranes”
16
Q
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
A
site of lipid and steroid hormone synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detoxification
17
Q
golgi apparatus
A
packages, modifies, and segregates proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma membrane
18
Q
lysosomes
A
sites of intracellular digestion
19
Q
mitochondria
A
site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell
20
Q
peroxisomes
A
the enzymes detoxify a number of toxic substances; the most important enzyme, catalase, breaks down hydrogen peroxide
21
Q
microfilaments
A
“involved in muscle contraction and other types of intracellular movement; help form the cell’s cytoskeleton”
22
Q
intermediate filaments
A
the stable cytoskeletal elements; resist tension forces acting on the cell
23
Q
microtubles
A
support the cell and give it shape; involved in intracellular and cellular movements; form centrioles
24
Q
centrioles
A
organize a microtubule network during mitosis to form the spindle and asters; form the bases of cilia and flagella
25
nucleus
control center of the cell; responsible for transmitting genetic information and providing the instructions for protein synthesis
26
nuclear envelope
separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm and regulates passage of substances to and from the nucleus
27
nucleoli
site of ribosome subunit manufacture
28
chromatin
DNA constitutes the genes
29
ectoderm
"""outside skin"", forms the outer layer of the skin (epidermis), the brain, and the spinal cord"
30
mesoderm
"""middle skin"", forms muscle, bone, and connective tissues"
31
endoderm
"""inner skin"", forms the innermost lining of the inner tube (epithelial lining)"
32
Epithelium: simple squamous (function)
Allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosao (linings of ventral body cavity)
33
epithelium: simple cuboidal (function)
secretion and absorption
34
epithelium: simple columnar (function)
absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
35
epithelium: pseudostratified columnar (function)
secrete substances, particularly mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
36
epithelium: stratified squamous (function)
protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
37
epithelium: stratified cuboidal epithelium (function)
protection
38
epithelium: stratified columnar epithelium (function)
protection, secretion
39
epithelium: transitional (function)
stretches readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ
40
tight junctions
impermeable junctions
form contineous seals around the cell
prevent molecules from passing between cells
form contineous seals around the cell
prevent molecules from passing between cells
41
desmosomes
anchoring junctions
bind adjacent cells together like molecular velcro/zipper
help keep cells from tearing apart
bind adjacent cells together like molecular velcro/zipper
help keep cells from tearing apart
42
gap junctions
communicating junctions
allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell
particularly important in heart cells and embryonic cells
allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell
particularly important in heart cells and embryonic cells
43
connective tissue proper (features)
six different types; vary in density and types of fibers
functions as a binding tissue
resists mechanical stress, particularly tension
functions as a binding tissue
resists mechanical stress, particularly tension
44
cartilage (features)
resists compression because of the large amounts of water held in the matrix
functions to cusion and support body structures
functions to cusion and support body structures
45
bone tissue (features)
hard tissue that resists both compression and tension
functions in support
functions in support
46
blood (features)
a fluid tissue
functions to carry O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, and other substances (hormones, e.g.)
functions to carry O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, and other substances (hormones, e.g.)
47
connective tissue, embryonic, mesenchyme (function)
gives rise to all other connective tissue types
48
connective tissue, proper, loose, areolar (function)
wraps and cusions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid
49
connective tissue, proper, loose, adipose (function)
provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs
50
connective tissue, proper, loose, reticular (function)
fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that suports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages
51
connective tissue, proper, dense, irregular (function)
withstands tensions exerted in many directions; provides structural strength
52
cennective tissue, proper, dense, regular (function)
attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches ones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction
53
connective tissue, proper, dense, elastic (function)
allows tissue to recoil after stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration
54
connective tissue, cartilage, hyaline (function)
supports and reinforces; serves as resilient cushion; resists compressive stress
55
connective tissue, cartilage, elastic (function)
maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility
56
connective tissue, cartalage, fibrocartilage (function)
tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock
57
connective tissue, bone (function)
supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the side for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
58
connective tissue, blood (function)
transports respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances
59
skeletal muscle (function)
voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control
60
cardiac muscle (function)
as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
61
smooth muscle (function)
propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control
62
nervous tissue (function)
neurons transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands); supporting cells support and protect neurons
63
comminuted fracture
bone fragments into three or more pieces; particularly common in the aged, whose bones are more brittle
64
compression fracture
bone is crushed; common in porous bones (i.e. osteoporotic bones) subjected to extreme trauma, as in a fall
65
spiral fracture
ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone; common sports fracture
66
epiphyseal fracture
epiphysis separates from the diasphysis along the epipyseal plate; tends to occure where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occuring
67
depressed fracture
broken bone portion is pressed inward; typical of skull fracture
68
greenstick
bone breaks incompletely, much in the way a green twig breaks. only one side ofthe shaft breaks and the other side bends; common in children, whose bones have relatively more organic matrix and are more flexible than those of adults
69
tuberosity
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: large rounded projection; may be roughened
70
crest
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent
71
trochanter
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process (the only examples are on the femur)
72
line
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than a crest
73
tubercle
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: small rounded projection or process
74
epicondyle
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: raised area on or above a condyle
75
spine
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: sharp, slender, often pointed projection
76
process
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: any bony prominence
77
head
surfaces that form joints: bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
78
facet [glossary]
surfaces that form joints: smooth, nearly flat articular surface
79
condyle
surfaces that form joints: rounded articular projection, often acticulates with a corresponding fossa
80
foramen [glossary]
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): round or oval opening through a bone
81
groove
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): furrow
82
fissure
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): narrow, slitlike opening
83
notch
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): indentation at the edge of a structure
84
fossa
depressions and openings: shallow basinlike depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface
85
meatus [glossary]
depressions and openings: canal-like passageway
86
sinus
depressions and openings: cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane
87
cranial bones (important markings): frontal
supraorbital foramina (notches): passageway for the supraorbital arteries and nerves
88
cranial bones (important markings): occipital
foramen magnum: allows passage of the spinal cord from the brain stem to the vertebral canal
hypoglossal canals: passageway for the hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII)
occipital condyles: articulate with the atlas (first vertebra)
external occipital protuberance and nuchal lines: sites of muscle attachment
external occipital crest: attachment site of ligamentum nuchae
hypoglossal canals: passageway for the hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII)
occipital condyles: articulate with the atlas (first vertebra)
external occipital protuberance and nuchal lines: sites of muscle attachment
external occipital crest: attachment site of ligamentum nuchae
89
cranial bones (important markings): temporal
zygomatic process: contributes to the zygomatic arch, which forms the prominence of the cheek
mandibular fossa: articular point for the head of the mandible
external acoustic meatus: canal leading from the exteral ear to the eardrum
styloid process: attachment site for several neck and tongue muscles and for a ligament to the hyoid bone
mastoid process: attachment side for several neck muscles
stylomastoid foramen: passageway for cranial nerve VII (facial nerve)
jugular foramen: passageway for the internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, and XI
internal acoustic meatus: passageway for cranial nerves VII and VIII
caratid canal: passageway for the internal carotid artery
mandibular fossa: articular point for the head of the mandible
external acoustic meatus: canal leading from the exteral ear to the eardrum
styloid process: attachment site for several neck and tongue muscles and for a ligament to the hyoid bone
mastoid process: attachment side for several neck muscles
stylomastoid foramen: passageway for cranial nerve VII (facial nerve)
jugular foramen: passageway for the internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, and XI
internal acoustic meatus: passageway for cranial nerves VII and VIII
caratid canal: passageway for the internal carotid artery
90
cranial bones (important markings): sphenoid
sella turcica: hypophyseal fossa portion is the seat of the pituitary gland
optic canals: passageway for cranial nerve II and the opthalmic arteries
superior orbital fissures: passageway for cranial nerves III, IV, VI, part of V (opthalmic division), and opthalmic vein
foramen rotundum: passageway for the maxillary division of cranial nerve V
foramen ovale: passageway for the mindibular division of cranial nerve V
foramen spinosum: passageway for the middle meningeal artery
optic canals: passageway for cranial nerve II and the opthalmic arteries
superior orbital fissures: passageway for cranial nerves III, IV, VI, part of V (opthalmic division), and opthalmic vein
foramen rotundum: passageway for the maxillary division of cranial nerve V
foramen ovale: passageway for the mindibular division of cranial nerve V
foramen spinosum: passageway for the middle meningeal artery
91
cranial bones (important markings): ethmoid
crista galli: attachment point for the falx cerebri, a dural membrane fold
cribriform plates: passageway for filaments of the oldfactory nerves (cranial nerve I)
superior and middle nasal conchae: form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity; increase turbulence of air flow
cribriform plates: passageway for filaments of the oldfactory nerves (cranial nerve I)
superior and middle nasal conchae: form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity; increase turbulence of air flow
92
facial bones (important markings): lacrimal
lacrimal fossa: houses the lacrimal sac, which helps to drain tears into the nasal cavity
93
facial bones (important markings): mandible
coronoid processes: insertion points for the temporalis muscles
condylar processes: articulate with the temporal bones to form the jaw (temporomandibular) joints
mental protuberance: forms the chin
dental alveoli: sockets for the teeth
mandibular foramina: passageway for the inferior alveolar nerves
mental foramina: passageway for blood vessels and nerves to the chin and lower lip
condylar processes: articulate with the temporal bones to form the jaw (temporomandibular) joints
mental protuberance: forms the chin
dental alveoli: sockets for the teeth
mandibular foramina: passageway for the inferior alveolar nerves
mental foramina: passageway for blood vessels and nerves to the chin and lower lip
94
facial bones (important markings): maxilla
dental alveoli: sockets for teeth
zygomatic process: helps form the zygomatic arches
palatine process: forms the anterior part of the hard palate
frontal process: forms part of lateral aspect of bridge of nose
incisive fossa: passageway for blood vessels and nerves through hard palate (fused palatine processes)
inferior orbital fissure: passageway for maxillary branch of cranial nerve V, the zygomatic nerve, and blood vessels
infraorbital foramen: passageway for infraorbital nerve to skin of face
zygomatic process: helps form the zygomatic arches
palatine process: forms the anterior part of the hard palate
frontal process: forms part of lateral aspect of bridge of nose
incisive fossa: passageway for blood vessels and nerves through hard palate (fused palatine processes)
inferior orbital fissure: passageway for maxillary branch of cranial nerve V, the zygomatic nerve, and blood vessels
infraorbital foramen: passageway for infraorbital nerve to skin of face
95
skeletal muscle: body location
attached to bones or (some facial muscles) to skin
96
skeletal muscle: cell shape and appearance
single, very long cylindrical, multinucleate cells with obvious striations
97
skeletal muscle: connective tissue components
epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium
98
skeletal muscle: presence of myofibrils composed of sarcomeres
yes
99
skeletal muscle: presence of T tubules and site of invagination
yes; two in each sarcomere at A-I junctions
100
skeletal muscle: elaborate sarcoplasmic reticulum
yes
101
skeletal muscle: source of Ca2+ for calcium pulse
sarcoplasmic reticulum
102
skeletal muscle: presence of gap junctions
no
103
skeletal muscle: cells exhibit individual neuromuscular junctions
yes
104
skeletal muscle: regulation of contraction
voluntary via terminal boutons of the somatic nervous system
105
skeletal muscle: energetics
aerobic and anaerobic
106
cardiac muscle: body location
walls of the heart
107
cardiac muscle: cell shape and appearance
branching chains of cells; uni- or binucleate; striations
108
cardiac muscle: connective tissue components
endomysium attached to fibrous skeleton of heart
109
cardiac muscle: presence of myofibrils composed of sarcomeres
yes, but myofibrils are of irregular thickness
110
cardiac muscle: presence of T tubules and site of invagination
yes; one in each sarcomere at Z discs; larger diameter than those of skeletal muscle
111
cardiac muscle: elaborate sarcoplasmic reticulum
less that skeletal muscle; scant terminal cisterns
112
cardiac muscle: source of Ca2+ for calcium pulse
sarcoplasmic reticulum and from extracellular fluid
113
cardiac muscle: presence of gap junctions
yes; at intercalated discs
114
cardiac muscle: cells exhibit individual neuromuscular junctions
no
115
cardiac muscle: regulation of contraction
involuntary; intrinsic system regulation; also autonomic nervous system controls; stretch
116
cardiac muscle: energetics
aerobic
117
smooth muscle: body location
mostly in walls of hollow organs, such as the stomach, respiratory tubes, bladder, blood vessels, and uterus
118
smooth muscle: cell shape and appearance
single, fusiform, uninucleate; no striations
119
smooth muscle: connective tissue components
endomysium
120
smooth muscle: presence of myofibrils composed of sarcomeres
no, but actin and myosin filaments are present throughout
121
smooth muscle: presence of T tubules and site of invagination
no T tubules; has caveolae along the sarcolemma
122
smooth muscle: elaborate sarcoplasmic reticulum
equivalent to cardiac muscle; some SR contacts the sarcolemma
123
smooth muscle: source of Ca2+ for calcium pulse
sarcoplasmic reticulum and from extracellular fluid
124
smooth muscle: presence of gap junctions
yes; in single-unit muscle
125
smooth muscle: cells exhibit individual neuromuscular junctions
not in single-unit smooth muscle; yes in multi unit smooth muscle
126
smooth muscle: regulation of contraction
involuntary; autonomic nerves, hormones, local chemicals; stretch
127
smooth muscle: energetics
mainly aerobic
128
IN I Olfactory Nerves: Pathway
pass through the cribriform foramina of the ethmoid bone to spnapse in the oldfactory bulb. Fibers of olfactory bulb neurons extend posteriorly beneath the frontal lobe as the olfactory tract. Terminate in the primary olfactory cortex of the cerebrum.
129
free nerve endings, free nerve endings of sensory neurons: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors
S: nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (heat and cold), mechanoreceptors (pressure), chemoreceptors
S: nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (heat and cold), mechanoreceptors (pressure), chemoreceptors
130
free nerve endings, modified free nerve endings (epithelial tactile complexes/Merkel discs): functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: exteroceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure), slowly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure), slowly adapting
131
free nerve endingsn, hair follicle receptors: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: exteroceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (hair deflection), rapidly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (hair deflection), rapidly adapting
132
"encapsulated, tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)"
L: exteroceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure, discriminative touch, vibration of low frequency), rapidly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure, discriminative touch, vibration of low frequency), rapidly adapting
133
encapsulated, lamellar (Cacinian) corpuscles: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: exteroceptors, interoceptors, and some proprieceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure, stretch, vibration of high frequency); rapidly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure, stretch, vibration of high frequency); rapidly adapting
134
encapsulated, bulbous corpuscle (Ruffini endings): functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: exteroceptors and proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure and stretch); slowly adapting or nonadapting
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure and stretch); slowly adapting or nonadapting
135
proprioceptors, muscle spindles: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch)
S: mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch)
136
proprioceptors, tendon organs: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch)
S: mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch)
137
proprioceptors, joint kinesthetic receptors: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
L: proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors and nociceptors
S: mechanoreceptors and nociceptors
138
free nerve endings, free nerve endings of sensory neurons: body location
most body tissues; most dense in connective tissues (ligaments, tendons, dermis, joint capsules, perosteum) and epithelia (epidermis, cornea, mucosae, and glands)
139
free nerve endings, modified free nerve endings (epithelial tactile complexes/Merkel discs): body location
basal layer of epidermis
140
free nerve endings, hair follicle receptors: body location
in and surrounding hair follicles
141
"encapsulated, tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: body location"
dermal papillae of hairless skin, particularly nipples, external genitalia, fingertips, eyelids
142
encapsulated, lamella (Pacinian) corpuscles: body location
dermis and hypodermis; periosteum, mesentery, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules, most abundant on fingers, soles of feet, external genitalia, nipples
143
encapsulated, bulbous corpuscle (Ruffini endings): body location
deep in dermis, hypodermis, and joint capsules
144
proprioceptors, muscle spindles: body location
skeletal muscles, particularly those of the extremities
145
proprioceptors, tendon organs: body location
tendons
146
proprioceptors, joint keneisthetic receptors: body location
joint capsules of synovial joints
147
location (funiculus): direct (pyramidal) pathways (descending): lateral corticospinal
lateral
148
location (funiculus): direct (pyramidal) pathways (descending): ventral corticospinal
ventral
149
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): rubrospinal
lateral
150
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): tectospinal
ventral
151
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): vestibulospinal
ventral
152
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
ventral and lateral
153
location (funiculus): spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
lateral (dorsal part)
154
location (funiculus): spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
lateral (ventral part)
155
location (funiculus): dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
dorsal
156
location (funiculus): spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
lateral
157
location (funiculus): spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
ventral
158
origin: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
interneurons (second-order neurons) in dorsal horns. fibers cross to contralateral side before ascending
159
termination: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
by synapse with third-order neurons in thalamus. thalamic neurons convey impulses to somatosensory cortex
160
function: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
transmits impulses concerned with crude touch and pressure to contralateral somatosensory cortex
161
origin: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
interneurons (second-order neurons) in dorsal horn. fibers cross to contralateral side before ascending
162
termination: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
by synapse with third-order neurons in thalamus. thalamic neurons then convey imprulses to somatosensory cortex.
163
function: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
transmits impulses concerned with crude touch and pressure to contralateral somatosensory cortex
164
origin: dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
central processes of sensory (first-order) neurons enter dorsal root of the spinal cord and branch. branches enter dorsal white column on ipsilateral side without synapsing
165
termination: dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
by synapse with second-order neurons in nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis in medulla. fibers of medullary neurons cross over and ascend in medial lemnicus to thalamus where they synapse with third-order neurons. thalamic neurons then transmit impulses to somatosensory cortex.
166
function: dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
"both tracts transmit general sensory impulses from receptors of skin and proprioceptors, which are interpreted as discriminative touch, pressure, and ""body sense"" (limb and joint position) in the contralateral somatosensory cortex. Cuneatus transmits afferent impulses from upper limbs, upper trunk, and neck; it is not present in spinal cord below level of T6. gracilis carries impulses from lower limbs and inferior body trunk."
167
origin: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
interneurons (second-order neurons) of dorsal horn. contains crossed fibers that cross back to the original ipsilateral side in the pons
168
termination: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
by synapse in cerebellum by way of the superior cerebellar peduncle
169
function: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
transmits impulses from the trunk and lower limb on one side of body to ipsilateral side of cerebellum for subconscious proprioception
170
origin: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
interneurons (second-order neurons) in dorsal horn on same side of cord. fibers ascend without crossing
171
termination: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
by synapse in cerebellum by way of the inferior cerebellar peduncle
172
function: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
transmits impulses from trunk and lower limb propriceptors on one side of body to ipsilateral side of cerebellum for subconscious proprioception
173
origin: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): lateral corticospinal
pyramidal neurons of motor cortex of the cerebrum; decussate in pyramids of medulla
174
termination: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): lateral corticospinal
by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with neurons directly
175
function: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): lateral corticospinal
transmits motor impulses from cerebrum to contralateral spinal cord motor neuron (which activate skeletal muscles); voluntary motor tract to limb muscles
176
origin: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): ventral corticospinal
pyramidal neurons of motor cortex; fibers cross over at the spinal cord level
177
termination: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): ventral corticospinal
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
178
function: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): ventral corticospinal
same as lateral corticospinal tract but to axial muscles: transmits motor impulses from cerebrum to contralateral spinal cord motor neurons (which activate skeletal muscles); voluntary motor tract to axial muscles
179
origin: indirect pathways (decending): rubrospinal
red rucleus of midbrain of brain stem (fibers cross to contralateral side just inferior to the red nucleus)
180
termination: indirect pathways (decending): rubrospinal
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
181
function: indirect pathways (decending): rubrospinal
transmits motor impulses concerned with muscle tone of distal limb muscles (mostly flexors) on contralateral side of body
182
origin: indirect pathways (decending): tectospinal
superior colliculus of midbrain of brain stem (fibers cross to contralateral side of cord)
183
termination: indirect pathways (decending): tectospinal
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
184
function: indirect pathways (decending): tectospinal
turns neck so eyes can follow a moving object
185
origin: indirect pathways (decending): vestibulospinal
vestibular nuclei in medulla of brain stem (fibers descend without crossing)
186
termination: indirect pathways (decending): vestibulospinal
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
187
function: indirect pathways (decending): vestibulospinal
transmits motor impulses that maintain muscle tone and activate ipsilateral limb and trunk extensor muscles and muscles that move head; helps maintain balance during standing and moving
188
origin: indirect pathways (decending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
reticular formation of brain stem (medial nuclear group of pons and medulla); both crossed and uncrossed fibers
189
termination: indirect pathways (decending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
190
function: indirect pathways (decending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
transmits impulses concerned with muscle tone and many visceral motor functions; may control most unskilled movements
191
sympathetic: origin
thoracolumbar outflow; lateral horn of gray matter of spinal cord segments T1-L2
192
sympathetic: location of ganglia
ganglia close to CNS: alongside vertebral column (sympathetic trunk ganglia) and anterior to vertebral column (collateral ganglia)
193
sympathetic: relative length of pre-and postganglionic axons
short preganglionic (splanchic nerves are exceptions); long postgonglionic
194
sympathetic: rami communicantes
gray and white rami communicantes; white contain myelinated preganglionic axons; gray contain unmyelinated postganglionic axons
195
sympathetic: degree of branching of preganglionic axons
extensive
196
sympathetic: functional role
prepares body to cope with emergencies and internse muscular activity; fight-or-flight response
197
sympathetic: neurotransmitters
all preganglionic axons release ACh; most postganglionic axons release norephinephrine (adrenergic axons); postganglionic axons to sweat glands and blood vessels of skeletal muscles release ACh; neurotransmitter activity augmented by release of adrenal medullary hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
198
parasympathetic: origin
craniosacral outflow: brain stem nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X; spinal cord segments S2-S4
199
parasympathetic: location of ganglia
ganglia in or close to visceral organ served
200
parasympathetic: relative length of pre- and postganglionic axons
long preganglionic; short postganglionic
201
parasympathetic: rami communicantes
none
202
parasympathetic: degree of branching of preganglionic axons
minimal
203
parasympathetic: functional role
maintenance functions; conserves and stores energy; rest and digest response
204
parasympathetic: neurotransmitters
all axons, preganglionic and postganglionic, release ACH (cholinergic axons)
205
parasymathetic effects: eye (iris)
stimulates constrictor muscles; consricts eye pupils
206
parasymathetic effects: eye (ciliary muscle)
stimulates ciliar muscles, which results in bulging of the lengs for accommodation and close vision
207
parasymathetic effects: glands (nasal, lacrimal, salivary, gastric, pancreas)
stimulates secretory activity
208
parasymathetic effects: sweat glands
no innervation
209
parasymathetic effects: arrector pili muscles attached to hair follicles
no innervation
210
parasymathetic effects: heart muscle
decreases rate; slows and steadies heart
211
parasymathetic effects: heart: coronary blood vessels
causes vasoconstriction
212
parasymathetic effects: lungs
constricts brochoiles
213
parasymathetic effects: digestive tract organs
increases motility (peristalsis) and amount of secretion by digestive organs; relaxes sphincters to allow movement of foodstuffs along tract
214
parasymathetic effects: liver
no effect
215
parasymathetic effects: gallbladder
stimulates activity (gallbladder contracts to expel bile)
216
parasymathetic effects: adrenal medulla
no innervation
217
parasymathetic effects: kidney
no effect
218
parasymathetic effects: bladder, urethra
causes contraction of smooth muscle of bladder wall; relaxes urethral sphincter; promotes voiding
219
parasymathetic effects: penis
causes erection (vasodilation)
220
parasymathetic effects: uterus
inhibits contraction of smooth muscle of uterine wall; causes vasodilation of vessels
221
parasymathetic effects: vagina, clitoris
causes erection (vasodilation) of clitoris
222
parasymathetic effects: blood vessels
little or no effect
223
parasymathetic effects: blood coagulation
no innervation
224
parasymathetic effects: cellular metabolism
no innervation
225
parasymathetic effects: adipose tissue
no innervation
226
parasymathetic effects: mental activity
no innervation
227
sympathetic effects: eye (iris)
stimulates dilator muscles, dilates eye pupils
228
sympathetic effects: eye (ciliary muscle)
weakly inhibits ciliar muscles, which flatten the lens for distance vision
229
sympathetic effects: glands (nasal, lacrimal, salivary, gastric, pancreas)
inhibits secretory activity; causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels supplying the glands
230
sympathetic effects: sweat glands
stimulates copious sweating (cholingeric fibers)
231
sympathetic effects: arrector pili muscles attached to hair follicles
stimulates to contract (erects hairs and produces goose bumps)
232
sympathetic effects: heart muscle
increases rate and force of heartbeat
233
sympathetic effects: heart: coronary blood vessels
causes vasodilation
234
sympathetic effects: lungs
dilates bronchioles and mildly constricts blood vessels
235
sympathetic effects: digestive tract organs
decreases activity of gladns and muscles of digestive system and costricts sphircters (e.g., anal sphincter); causes vasoconstriction
236
sympathetic effects: liver
epinephrine stimulates liver to release glucose to blood
237
sympathetic effects: gallbladder
inhibits activity (gallbladder is relaxed)
238
sympathetic effects: adrenal medulla
stimulates medulla cells to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into bloodstream
239
sympathetic effects: kidney
causes vasoconstriction; decreases urine output
240
sympathetic effects: bladder, urethra
causes relaxation of smooth muscle of bladder wall; constricts urethral sphincter; inhibits voiding
241
sympathetic effects: penis
causes ejaculation
242
sympathetic effects: uterus
stimulates contraction of smooth muscle of uterine wall; causes vasoconstriction of vessels
243
sympathetic effects: vagina, clitoris
causes contraction of vagina
244
sympathetic effects: blood vessels
constricts most vessels and increases blood pressure; consticts vessels of abdominal viscera and skin to divert blood to muscles, brain, and heart when necessary; dilates vessels of the skeletal muscles (cholinergic fibers) during exercise
245
sympathetic effects: blood coagulation
increases coagulation
246
sympathetic effects: cellular metabolism
increases metabolic rate
247
sympathetic effects: adipose tissue
stimulates lipolysis (fat breakdown)
248
sympathetic effects: mental activity
increases alertness
249
lateral rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
moves eye laterally
VI (abducens)
VI (abducens)
250
medial rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
moves eye medially
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
251
superior rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
elevates eye and turns it medially
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
252
inferior rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
depresses eye and turns it medially
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
253
inferior oblique: action and controlling cranial nerve
elevates eye and turns it laterally
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
254
superior oblique: action and controlling cranial nerve
depresses eye and turns it laterally
IV (trochlear)
IV (trochlear)
255
semicircular canals: Membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth)
semicircular ducts
256
vestibule: Membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth)
utricle and sacclue
257
cochlea: Membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth)
cochlear duct
258
semicircular canals: functions of the membranous labyrinth
equilibrium: rotational (angular) acceleration of the head)
259
vestibule: functions of the membranous labyrinth
equilibrium: static equilibrium and linear acceleration of the head
260
cochlea: functions of the membranous labyrinth
hearing
261
humoral stimulus: cause, stimulus, response (examples)
hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients
stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood
response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca2+
stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood
response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca2+
262
neural stimulus: cause, stimulus, response (examples)
hormone release caused by neural input
stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
263
hormonal stimulas: cause, stimulus, response (examples)
hormone release caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone)
stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
response: anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones
stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
response: anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones
264
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyrotropic cells)
thyroid gland: stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones
265
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (corticotropic cells)
adrenal cortex: promotes release of glococorticoids and androgens (mineralocorticoids to a lesser extent)
266
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (gonadotropic cells)
ovaries and testes: in females, stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen production; in males, stimulates sperm production
267
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropic cells)
ovaries and testes: in females, triggers ovulation and stimulates ovarian production of estrogen and progesterone; in males, promotes testosterone production
268
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: growth hormone (GH) (somatotropic cells)
liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues: stimulates protein synthesis and somatic growth; mobilizes fats; increases blood glucose
269
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: prolactin (PRL) (prolactin cells)
breast secretory tissue: promotes lactation
270
posterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: antidiuretic hormon (ADH), or vasopressin (from neurons in supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus)
kidneys: stimulates kdney tubule cells to resorb water
271
posterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: oxytocin (from neurons in paraventricular nucleus hypothalamus)
uterus: stimulates uterine contractions; initiates labor; breast: initiates milk ejection
272
posterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (from neurons in supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus)
-diabetes insipidus
+syndrome of innapropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)
+syndrome of innapropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)
273
posterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): oxytocin (from neurons in paraventricular nucleus hypothalamus)
unknown
274
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): prolactin (PRL) (prolactin cells)
-poor milk production in nursing women
+inappropriate milk production (galactorrhea); cessation of menses in females; impotence in males
+inappropriate milk production (galactorrhea); cessation of menses in females; impotence in males
275
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): growth hormone (GH) (somatotropic cells)
-pituitary dwarfism in children
+gigantism in children; acromegaly in adults
+gigantism in children; acromegaly in adults
276
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropic cells)
as for FSH:
-failure of sexual maturation
+no imortant effects
-failure of sexual maturation
+no imortant effects
277
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (gonadotropic cells)
-failure of sexual maturation
+no important effects
+no important effects
278
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (corticotropic cells)
"-rare
+Cushing's disease"
+Cushing's disease"
279
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyrotropic cells)
"-cretinism in children; myxedema in adults
+hyperthyroidism; effects similar to those of Graves' disease, in which antibodies mimic TSH"
+hyperthyroidism; effects similar to those of Graves' disease, in which antibodies mimic TSH"
280
"erythrocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
biconcave, anuleate disc; salmon-colored; diametr 7-8 um
281
"leukocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
spherical, nucleated cells
282
"neutrophils: description (Wright's stain)"
nucleus multilobed; inconspicuous cytoplasmic granules; diameter 12-14 um
283
"eosinophils: description (Wright's stain)"
nucleus bilobed; red cytoplasmic granules, diameter 12-15 um
284
"basophils: description (Wright's stain)"
nucleus bilobed; large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules; diameter 10-14 um
285
"lymphocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
nucleus spherical or indeted; pale blue cytoplasm; diametr 5-17 um
286
"monocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
nucleus U- or kidney-shaped; gray-blue cytoplasm; diameter 14-24 um
287
"platelets: description (Wright's stain)"
discoid cytoplasmic fragments cointaing graundules; stain deep purple; diameter 2-4 um
288
erythrocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
4-6 million
289
leukocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
4800-11000
290
neutrophils: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
3000-7000
291
eosinophils: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
100-400
292
basophils: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
20-50
293
lymphocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
1500-3000
294
monocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
100-700
295
platelets: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
150,000-500,000
296
erythrocytes: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: 5-9 days
LS: 100-120 days
LS: 100-120 days
297
neutrophils: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: 7-11 days
LS: 6 hours to a few days
LS: 6 hours to a few days
298
eosinophils: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: 7-11 days
LS: about 5 days
LS: about 5 days
299
basophils: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: 3-7 days
LS: a few hours to a few days
LS: a few hours to a few days
300
lymphocytes: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: days to weeks
LS: hours to years
LS: hours to years
301
monocytes: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: 2-3 days
LS: months
LS: months
302
platelets: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
D: 4-5 days
LS: 5-10 days
LS: 5-10 days
303
erythrocytes: function
transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
304
granulocytes: function
destroy bacteria by phagocytosis
305
eosinophils: function
turn off allergic responses and kill parasites
306
basophils: function
release histamine and other mediators of inflammation
307
lymphocytes: function
mount immune response by direct cell attack (T cells) or via antibodies (B cells)
308
monocytes: function
phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissues
309
platelets: function
seal small tears in blood vessels; instrumental in bloodclotting
310
foramen ovale: postnatal structure; function in fetus
fossa ovalis; diverts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium
311
ductus arteriosus: postnatal structure; function in fetus
ligamentum arteriosum; diverts blood from the pulmonary trunk to the aorta
312
ductus venosus: postnatal structure; function in fetus
ligamentum venosum; carries blood from the umbilical vein through the liver into the IVC
313
umbilical arteries: postnatal structure; function in fetus
medial umbilical ligaments; paired vessels carry blood from the fetus to the placenta
314
umbilical vein: postnatal structure; function in fetus
round ligament of the liver (ligamentum teres); single vessel carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus
315
nose: function
produces mucus; filters, warms, and moistens incoming air; resonance chamber for speech
receptors for sense of smell
receptors for sense of smell
316
paranasal sinuses: function
lighten the skull; help warm, filter, and moisten incoming air
317
pharynx: function
passageway for air and food
tonsils are lymphoid tissue that responds to inhaled or ingested antigens
tonsils are lymphoid tissue that responds to inhaled or ingested antigens
318
larynx: function
air passageway; prevents food from entering lower respiratory tract
voice production
voice production
319
trachea: function
air passageway; filters, warms, and moistens incoming air
320
bronchial tree: function
air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli; warms and moistens incoming air
321
alveoli: function
main sites of gas exchange
surfactant reduces surface tension; helps prevent alveolar collapse
surfactant reduces surface tension; helps prevent alveolar collapse
322
lungs: function
house passageways smaller than main bronchi
323
pleurae: function
produce lubricating fluid and compartmentalize lungs
324
nose: description, general and distinctive features
external portion supported by bone and cartilage; internal nasal cavity divided in half by midline nasal septum and lined with respiratory mucosa
roof of nasal cavity contains olfactory mucosa
roof of nasal cavity contains olfactory mucosa
325
paranasal sinuses: description, general and distinctive features
mucosa-lined hollow cavities within the sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary, and frontal bones
326
pharynx: description, general and distinctive features
passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx and oral covity to esophagus; three subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and largypharynx
houses tonsils
houses tonsils
327
larynx: description, general and distinctive features
connects pharynx to trachea; framework of cartilage and dense connective tissue; opening (rima glottidis) can be closed by epiglottis or vocal folds
houses true vocal cords
houses true vocal cords
328
trachea: description, general and distinctive features
flexible tube running from larynx and dividing inferiorly into two main (primary) bronchi; walls contain C-shaped cartilages that are incomplete posteriorly where trachealis muscle occurs
329
brochial tree: description, general and distinctive features
consists of right and left main bronchi, which subdivide within the lungs to form lobar (secondary) and segmental (tertiary) bronchi, smaller bronchi, and bronchioles; bronchiolar walls contain complete layer of smooth muscle; constriction of this muscle impedes expiration
330
alveoli: description, general and distinctive features
microscopic chambers at end of bronchial tree; walls of simple squamous epithelium--type I alveolar cells--underlain by thin basement membrane; external surfaces intimately associated with pulmonary capillaries
simple cuboidal epithelium--type II alveolar cells--produce surfactant
simple cuboidal epithelium--type II alveolar cells--produce surfactant
331
lungs: description, general and distinctive features
paired composite organs located within pleural cavities of thorax; composed primarily of alveoli and respiratory passageways; stroma is fibrous elastic connective tissue, allowing lungs to recoil passively during expiration
332
pleurae: description, general and distinctive features
serous membranes; parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity; visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces
333
cardia
"""near the heart"", ring-shaped zone of the stomach encircling the cardial orifice at the junction with the esophagus"
334
body (stomach)
large midportion of the stomach
335
chief (zymogenic) cells
occur mainly in the basal parts of the glands; make and secrete the enzymatic protein pepsinogen, also secrete gastric lipase which functions in fat digestion
336
circular folds
or plicae circulares, permanent, transverse ridges of the mucosa and submucosa, increase the absorptive surface area, force the chyme to spiral through the intestinal lumen slowing its movement and allowing time for complete absorption of nutrients
337
absorptive enterocytes
these cells contain many mitochondria because the uptake of digested nutrients is an energy-demanding process. they also contain an abundant endoplasmic reticulum, which assembles the newly absorbed lipid molecules into lipid-protein complexes called cholymicrons. once made, the chylomicrons enter the lacteal capillaries, so it is in this form that absorbed fat enters the circulation.
338
cecum
"""blind pouch"" saclike beginning of the large intestine, in the right iliac fossa"
339
appendicitis
acute inflammation of the appendix, resulting from a blockage that traps infectious bacteria within its lumen
340
appendectomy
immediate surgical removal of the appendix
341
colon
several distinct segments
342
ascending colon
ascends along the right side of the posterior abdominal wall in a secondarily retroperitoneal position and reaches the level of the right kidney where it makes a right-angle turn, the right colic flexure (or hepatic flexure)
343
anal canal
begins where the rectum passes through the levator ani, lies entirely external to the abdominopelvic cavity in the perineum
344
anal columns
longitudinal folds of mucosa contained in the superior half of the internal anal canal, contain the terminal portions of the superior rectal artery and vein (the hemorrhoidal vessels)
345
anal valves
cresent-shaped transverse folds where neighboring anal columns join each other inferiorly
346
anal sinuses
pockets just superior to the anal valves which release mucus when they are compressed by feces, providing lubrication that eases fecal passage during defecation
347
toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
superior (cranial)
348
away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
inferior (caudal)
349
toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
medial
350
away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
lateral
351
closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
proximal
352
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
distal
353
on the same side
ipsilateral
354
on opposide sides
contralateral
355
toward or at the front of the body; in front of
anterior
356
toward or at the back of the body; behind
posterior
357
toward or at the body surface
superficial
358
away from the body surface; more internal
deep
359
serves as an external cell barrier; acts in transport of substances into or out of the cell; externally facing proteins act as receptors (for hormones, neurotransmitters, etc) and in cell-to-cell recognition
plasma membrane
360
the sites of protein synthesis
ribosomes
361
"makes proteins that are secreted from the cell; makes the cell's membranes"
rough endoplasmic reticulum
362
site of lipid and steroid hormone synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detoxification
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
363
packages, modifies, and segregates proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma membrane
golgi apparatus
364
sites of intracellular digestion
lysosomes
365
site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell
mitochondria
366
the enzymes detoxify a number of toxic substances; the most important enzyme, catalase, breaks down hydrogen peroxide
peroxisomes
367
"involved in muscle contraction and other types of intracellular movement; help form the cell's cytoskeleton"
microfilaments
368
the stable cytoskeletal elements; resist tension forces acting on the cell
intermediate filaments
369
support the cell and give it shape; involved in intracellular and cellular movements; form centrioles
microtubles
370
organize a microtubule network during mitosis to form the spindle and asters; form the bases of cilia and flagella
centrioles
371
control center of the cell; responsible for transmitting genetic information and providing the instructions for protein synthesis
nucleus
372
separates the nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm and regulates passage of substances to and from the nucleus
nuclear envelope
373
site of ribosome subunit manufacture
nucleoli
374
DNA constitutes the genes
chromatin
375
"""outside skin"", forms the outer layer of the skin (epidermis), the brain, and the spinal cord"
ectoderm
376
"""middle skin"", forms muscle, bone, and connective tissues"
mesoderm
377
"""inner skin"", forms the innermost lining of the inner tube (epithelial lining)"
endoderm
378
Allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosao (linings of ventral body cavity)
Epithelium: simple squamous (function)
379
secretion and absorption
epithelium: simple cuboidal (function)
380
absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
epithelium: simple columnar (function)
381
secrete substances, particularly mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action
epithelium: pseudostratified columnar (function)
382
protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion
epithelium: stratified squamous (function)
383
protection
epithelium: stratified cuboidal epithelium (function)
384
protection, secretion
epithelium: stratified columnar epithelium (function)
385
stretches readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ
epithelium: transitional (function)
386
impermeable junctions
form contineous seals around the cell
prevent molecules from passing between cells
form contineous seals around the cell
prevent molecules from passing between cells
tight junctions
387
anchoring junctions
bind adjacent cells together like molecular velcro/zipper
help keep cells from tearing apart
bind adjacent cells together like molecular velcro/zipper
help keep cells from tearing apart
desmosomes
388
communicating junctions
allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell
particularly important in heart cells and embryonic cells
allow ions and small molecules to pass from cell to cell
particularly important in heart cells and embryonic cells
gap junctions
389
six different types; vary in density and types of fibers
functions as a binding tissue
resists mechanical stress, particularly tension
functions as a binding tissue
resists mechanical stress, particularly tension
connective tissue proper (features)
390
resists compression because of the large amounts of water held in the matrix
functions to cusion and support body structures
functions to cusion and support body structures
cartilage (features)
391
hard tissue that resists both compression and tension
functions in support
functions in support
bone tissue (features)
392
a fluid tissue
functions to carry O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, and other substances (hormones, e.g.)
functions to carry O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, and other substances (hormones, e.g.)
blood (features)
393
gives rise to all other connective tissue types
connective tissue, embryonic, mesenchyme (function)
394
wraps and cusions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid
connective tissue, proper, loose, areolar (function)
395
provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs
connective tissue, proper, loose, adipose (function)
396
fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that suports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages
connective tissue, proper, loose, reticular (function)
397
withstands tensions exerted in many directions; provides structural strength
connective tissue, proper, dense, irregular (function)
398
attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches ones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction
cennective tissue, proper, dense, regular (function)
399
allows tissue to recoil after stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration
connective tissue, proper, dense, elastic (function)
400
supports and reinforces; serves as resilient cushion; resists compressive stress
connective tissue, cartilage, hyaline (function)
401
maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility
connective tissue, cartilage, elastic (function)
402
tensile strength allows it to absorb compressive shock
connective tissue, cartalage, fibrocartilage (function)
403
supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the side for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
connective tissue, bone (function)
404
transports respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances
connective tissue, blood (function)
405
voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control
skeletal muscle (function)
406
as it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control
cardiac muscle (function)
407
propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control
smooth muscle (function)
408
neurons transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands); supporting cells support and protect neurons
nervous tissue (function)
409
bone fragments into three or more pieces; particularly common in the aged, whose bones are more brittle
comminuted fracture
410
bone is crushed; common in porous bones (i.e. osteoporotic bones) subjected to extreme trauma, as in a fall
compression fracture
411
ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone; common sports fracture
spiral fracture
412
epiphysis separates from the diasphysis along the epipyseal plate; tends to occure where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occuring
epiphyseal fracture
413
broken bone portion is pressed inward; typical of skull fracture
depressed fracture
414
bone breaks incompletely, much in the way a green twig breaks. only one side ofthe shaft breaks and the other side bends; common in children, whose bones have relatively more organic matrix and are more flexible than those of adults
greenstick
415
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: large rounded projection; may be roughened
tuberosity
416
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent
crest
417
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process (the only examples are on the femur)
trochanter
418
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than a crest
line
419
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: small rounded projection or process
tubercle
420
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: raised area on or above a condyle
epicondyle
421
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: sharp, slender, often pointed projection
spine
422
projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment: any bony prominence
process
423
surfaces that form joints: bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
head
424
surfaces that form joints: smooth, nearly flat articular surface
facet [glossary]
425
surfaces that form joints: rounded articular projection, often acticulates with a corresponding fossa
condyle
426
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): round or oval opening through a bone
foramen [glossary]
427
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): furrow
groove
428
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): narrow, slitlike opening
fissure
429
depressions and openings (for passage of vessels and nerves): indentation at the edge of a structure
notch
430
depressions and openings: shallow basinlike depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface
fossa
431
depressions and openings: canal-like passageway
meatus [glossary]
432
depressions and openings: cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with mucous membrane
sinus
433
supraorbital foramina (notches): passageway for the supraorbital arteries and nerves
cranial bones (important markings): frontal
434
foramen magnum: allows passage of the spinal cord from the brain stem to the vertebral canal
hypoglossal canals: passageway for the hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII)
occipital condyles: articulate with the atlas (first vertebra)
external occipital protuberance and nuchal lines: sites of muscle attachment
external occipital crest: attachment site of ligamentum nuchae
hypoglossal canals: passageway for the hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII)
occipital condyles: articulate with the atlas (first vertebra)
external occipital protuberance and nuchal lines: sites of muscle attachment
external occipital crest: attachment site of ligamentum nuchae
cranial bones (important markings): occipital
435
zygomatic process: contributes to the zygomatic arch, which forms the prominence of the cheek
mandibular fossa: articular point for the head of the mandible
external acoustic meatus: canal leading from the exteral ear to the eardrum
styloid process: attachment site for several neck and tongue muscles and for a ligament to the hyoid bone
mastoid process: attachment side for several neck muscles
stylomastoid foramen: passageway for cranial nerve VII (facial nerve)
jugular foramen: passageway for the internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, and XI
internal acoustic meatus: passageway for cranial nerves VII and VIII
caratid canal: passageway for the internal carotid artery
mandibular fossa: articular point for the head of the mandible
external acoustic meatus: canal leading from the exteral ear to the eardrum
styloid process: attachment site for several neck and tongue muscles and for a ligament to the hyoid bone
mastoid process: attachment side for several neck muscles
stylomastoid foramen: passageway for cranial nerve VII (facial nerve)
jugular foramen: passageway for the internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, and XI
internal acoustic meatus: passageway for cranial nerves VII and VIII
caratid canal: passageway for the internal carotid artery
cranial bones (important markings): temporal
436
sella turcica: hypophyseal fossa portion is the seat of the pituitary gland
optic canals: passageway for cranial nerve II and the opthalmic arteries
superior orbital fissures: passageway for cranial nerves III, IV, VI, part of V (opthalmic division), and opthalmic vein
foramen rotundum: passageway for the maxillary division of cranial nerve V
foramen ovale: passageway for the mindibular division of cranial nerve V
foramen spinosum: passageway for the middle meningeal artery
optic canals: passageway for cranial nerve II and the opthalmic arteries
superior orbital fissures: passageway for cranial nerves III, IV, VI, part of V (opthalmic division), and opthalmic vein
foramen rotundum: passageway for the maxillary division of cranial nerve V
foramen ovale: passageway for the mindibular division of cranial nerve V
foramen spinosum: passageway for the middle meningeal artery
cranial bones (important markings): sphenoid
437
crista galli: attachment point for the falx cerebri, a dural membrane fold
cribriform plates: passageway for filaments of the oldfactory nerves (cranial nerve I)
superior and middle nasal conchae: form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity; increase turbulence of air flow
cribriform plates: passageway for filaments of the oldfactory nerves (cranial nerve I)
superior and middle nasal conchae: form part of lateral walls of nasal cavity; increase turbulence of air flow
cranial bones (important markings): ethmoid
438
lacrimal fossa: houses the lacrimal sac, which helps to drain tears into the nasal cavity
facial bones (important markings): lacrimal
439
coronoid processes: insertion points for the temporalis muscles
condylar processes: articulate with the temporal bones to form the jaw (temporomandibular) joints
mental protuberance: forms the chin
dental alveoli: sockets for the teeth
mandibular foramina: passageway for the inferior alveolar nerves
mental foramina: passageway for blood vessels and nerves to the chin and lower lip
condylar processes: articulate with the temporal bones to form the jaw (temporomandibular) joints
mental protuberance: forms the chin
dental alveoli: sockets for the teeth
mandibular foramina: passageway for the inferior alveolar nerves
mental foramina: passageway for blood vessels and nerves to the chin and lower lip
facial bones (important markings): mandible
440
dental alveoli: sockets for teeth
zygomatic process: helps form the zygomatic arches
palatine process: forms the anterior part of the hard palate
frontal process: forms part of lateral aspect of bridge of nose
incisive fossa: passageway for blood vessels and nerves through hard palate (fused palatine processes)
inferior orbital fissure: passageway for maxillary branch of cranial nerve V, the zygomatic nerve, and blood vessels
infraorbital foramen: passageway for infraorbital nerve to skin of face
zygomatic process: helps form the zygomatic arches
palatine process: forms the anterior part of the hard palate
frontal process: forms part of lateral aspect of bridge of nose
incisive fossa: passageway for blood vessels and nerves through hard palate (fused palatine processes)
inferior orbital fissure: passageway for maxillary branch of cranial nerve V, the zygomatic nerve, and blood vessels
infraorbital foramen: passageway for infraorbital nerve to skin of face
facial bones (important markings): maxilla
441
attached to bones or (some facial muscles) to skin
skeletal muscle: body location
442
single, very long cylindrical, multinucleate cells with obvious striations
skeletal muscle: cell shape and appearance
443
epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium
skeletal muscle: connective tissue components
444
yes
skeletal muscle: presence of myofibrils composed of sarcomeres
445
yes; two in each sarcomere at A-I junctions
skeletal muscle: presence of T tubules and site of invagination
446
yes
skeletal muscle: elaborate sarcoplasmic reticulum
447
sarcoplasmic reticulum
skeletal muscle: source of Ca2+ for calcium pulse
448
no
skeletal muscle: presence of gap junctions
449
yes
skeletal muscle: cells exhibit individual neuromuscular junctions
450
voluntary via terminal boutons of the somatic nervous system
skeletal muscle: regulation of contraction
451
aerobic and anaerobic
skeletal muscle: energetics
452
walls of the heart
cardiac muscle: body location
453
branching chains of cells; uni- or binucleate; striations
cardiac muscle: cell shape and appearance
454
endomysium attached to fibrous skeleton of heart
cardiac muscle: connective tissue components
455
yes, but myofibrils are of irregular thickness
cardiac muscle: presence of myofibrils composed of sarcomeres
456
yes; one in each sarcomere at Z discs; larger diameter than those of skeletal muscle
cardiac muscle: presence of T tubules and site of invagination
457
less that skeletal muscle; scant terminal cisterns
cardiac muscle: elaborate sarcoplasmic reticulum
458
sarcoplasmic reticulum and from extracellular fluid
cardiac muscle: source of Ca2+ for calcium pulse
459
yes; at intercalated discs
cardiac muscle: presence of gap junctions
460
no
cardiac muscle: cells exhibit individual neuromuscular junctions
461
involuntary; intrinsic system regulation; also autonomic nervous system controls; stretch
cardiac muscle: regulation of contraction
462
aerobic
cardiac muscle: energetics
463
mostly in walls of hollow organs, such as the stomach, respiratory tubes, bladder, blood vessels, and uterus
smooth muscle: body location
464
single, fusiform, uninucleate; no striations
smooth muscle: cell shape and appearance
465
endomysium
smooth muscle: connective tissue components
466
no, but actin and myosin filaments are present throughout
smooth muscle: presence of myofibrils composed of sarcomeres
467
no T tubules; has caveolae along the sarcolemma
smooth muscle: presence of T tubules and site of invagination
468
equivalent to cardiac muscle; some SR contacts the sarcolemma
smooth muscle: elaborate sarcoplasmic reticulum
469
sarcoplasmic reticulum and from extracellular fluid
smooth muscle: source of Ca2+ for calcium pulse
470
yes; in single-unit muscle
smooth muscle: presence of gap junctions
471
not in single-unit smooth muscle; yes in multi unit smooth muscle
smooth muscle: cells exhibit individual neuromuscular junctions
472
involuntary; autonomic nerves, hormones, local chemicals; stretch
smooth muscle: regulation of contraction
473
mainly aerobic
smooth muscle: energetics
474
pass through the cribriform foramina of the ethmoid bone to spnapse in the oldfactory bulb. Fibers of olfactory bulb neurons extend posteriorly beneath the frontal lobe as the olfactory tract. Terminate in the primary olfactory cortex of the cerebrum.
IN I Olfactory Nerves: Pathway
475
L: exteroceptors, interoceptors, and proprioceptors
S: nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (heat and cold), mechanoreceptors (pressure), chemoreceptors
S: nociceptors (pain), thermoreceptors (heat and cold), mechanoreceptors (pressure), chemoreceptors
free nerve endings, free nerve endings of sensory neurons: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
476
L: exteroceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure), slowly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure), slowly adapting
free nerve endings, modified free nerve endings (epithelial tactile complexes/Merkel discs): functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
477
L: exteroceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (hair deflection), rapidly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (hair deflection), rapidly adapting
free nerve endingsn, hair follicle receptors: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
478
L: exteroceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure, discriminative touch, vibration of low frequency), rapidly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (light pressure, discriminative touch, vibration of low frequency), rapidly adapting
"encapsulated, tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)"
479
L: exteroceptors, interoceptors, and some proprieceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure, stretch, vibration of high frequency); rapidly adapting
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure, stretch, vibration of high frequency); rapidly adapting
encapsulated, lamellar (Cacinian) corpuscles: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
480
L: exteroceptors and proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure and stretch); slowly adapting or nonadapting
S: mechanoreceptors (deep pressure and stretch); slowly adapting or nonadapting
encapsulated, bulbous corpuscle (Ruffini endings): functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
481
L: proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch)
S: mechanoreceptors (muscle stretch)
proprioceptors, muscle spindles: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
482
L: proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch)
S: mechanoreceptors (tendon stretch)
proprioceptors, tendon organs: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
483
L: proprioceptors
S: mechanoreceptors and nociceptors
S: mechanoreceptors and nociceptors
proprioceptors, joint kinesthetic receptors: functional class according to location (L) and stimulus type (S)
484
most body tissues; most dense in connective tissues (ligaments, tendons, dermis, joint capsules, perosteum) and epithelia (epidermis, cornea, mucosae, and glands)
free nerve endings, free nerve endings of sensory neurons: body location
485
basal layer of epidermis
free nerve endings, modified free nerve endings (epithelial tactile complexes/Merkel discs): body location
486
in and surrounding hair follicles
free nerve endings, hair follicle receptors: body location
487
dermal papillae of hairless skin, particularly nipples, external genitalia, fingertips, eyelids
"encapsulated, tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: body location"
488
dermis and hypodermis; periosteum, mesentery, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules, most abundant on fingers, soles of feet, external genitalia, nipples
encapsulated, lamella (Pacinian) corpuscles: body location
489
deep in dermis, hypodermis, and joint capsules
encapsulated, bulbous corpuscle (Ruffini endings): body location
490
skeletal muscles, particularly those of the extremities
proprioceptors, muscle spindles: body location
491
tendons
proprioceptors, tendon organs: body location
492
joint capsules of synovial joints
proprioceptors, joint keneisthetic receptors: body location
493
lateral
location (funiculus): direct (pyramidal) pathways (descending): lateral corticospinal
494
ventral
location (funiculus): direct (pyramidal) pathways (descending): ventral corticospinal
495
lateral
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): rubrospinal
496
ventral
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): tectospinal
497
ventral
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): vestibulospinal
498
ventral and lateral
location (funiculus): indirect pathways (descending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
499
lateral (dorsal part)
location (funiculus): spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
500
lateral (ventral part)
location (funiculus): spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
501
dorsal
location (funiculus): dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
502
lateral
location (funiculus): spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
503
ventral
location (funiculus): spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
504
interneurons (second-order neurons) in dorsal horns. fibers cross to contralateral side before ascending
origin: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
505
by synapse with third-order neurons in thalamus. thalamic neurons convey impulses to somatosensory cortex
termination: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
506
transmits impulses concerned with crude touch and pressure to contralateral somatosensory cortex
function: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): ventral spinothalamic
507
interneurons (second-order neurons) in dorsal horn. fibers cross to contralateral side before ascending
origin: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
508
by synapse with third-order neurons in thalamus. thalamic neurons then convey imprulses to somatosensory cortex.
termination: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
509
transmits impulses concerned with crude touch and pressure to contralateral somatosensory cortex
function: spinothalamic pathways (ascending): lateral spinothalamic
510
central processes of sensory (first-order) neurons enter dorsal root of the spinal cord and branch. branches enter dorsal white column on ipsilateral side without synapsing
origin: dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
511
by synapse with second-order neurons in nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis in medulla. fibers of medullary neurons cross over and ascend in medial lemnicus to thalamus where they synapse with third-order neurons. thalamic neurons then transmit impulses to somatosensory cortex.
termination: dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
512
"both tracts transmit general sensory impulses from receptors of skin and proprioceptors, which are interpreted as discriminative touch, pressure, and ""body sense"" (limb and joint position) in the contralateral somatosensory cortex. Cuneatus transmits afferent impulses from upper limbs, upper trunk, and neck; it is not present in spinal cord below level of T6. gracilis carries impulses from lower limbs and inferior body trunk."
function: dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathways (ascending): fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis
513
interneurons (second-order neurons) of dorsal horn. contains crossed fibers that cross back to the original ipsilateral side in the pons
origin: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
514
by synapse in cerebellum by way of the superior cerebellar peduncle
termination: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
515
transmits impulses from the trunk and lower limb on one side of body to ipsilateral side of cerebellum for subconscious proprioception
function: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): ventral spinocerebellar
516
interneurons (second-order neurons) in dorsal horn on same side of cord. fibers ascend without crossing
origin: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
517
by synapse in cerebellum by way of the inferior cerebellar peduncle
termination: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
518
transmits impulses from trunk and lower limb propriceptors on one side of body to ipsilateral side of cerebellum for subconscious proprioception
function: spinocerebellar pathways (ascending): dorsal spinocerebellar
519
pyramidal neurons of motor cortex of the cerebrum; decussate in pyramids of medulla
origin: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): lateral corticospinal
520
by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with neurons directly
termination: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): lateral corticospinal
521
transmits motor impulses from cerebrum to contralateral spinal cord motor neuron (which activate skeletal muscles); voluntary motor tract to limb muscles
function: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): lateral corticospinal
522
pyramidal neurons of motor cortex; fibers cross over at the spinal cord level
origin: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): ventral corticospinal
523
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
termination: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): ventral corticospinal
524
same as lateral corticospinal tract but to axial muscles: transmits motor impulses from cerebrum to contralateral spinal cord motor neurons (which activate skeletal muscles); voluntary motor tract to axial muscles
function: direct (pyramidal) pathways (decending): ventral corticospinal
525
red rucleus of midbrain of brain stem (fibers cross to contralateral side just inferior to the red nucleus)
origin: indirect pathways (decending): rubrospinal
526
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
termination: indirect pathways (decending): rubrospinal
527
transmits motor impulses concerned with muscle tone of distal limb muscles (mostly flexors) on contralateral side of body
function: indirect pathways (decending): rubrospinal
528
superior colliculus of midbrain of brain stem (fibers cross to contralateral side of cord)
origin: indirect pathways (decending): tectospinal
529
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
termination: indirect pathways (decending): tectospinal
530
turns neck so eyes can follow a moving object
function: indirect pathways (decending): tectospinal
531
vestibular nuclei in medulla of brain stem (fibers descend without crossing)
origin: indirect pathways (decending): vestibulospinal
532
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
termination: indirect pathways (decending): vestibulospinal
533
transmits motor impulses that maintain muscle tone and activate ipsilateral limb and trunk extensor muscles and muscles that move head; helps maintain balance during standing and moving
function: indirect pathways (decending): vestibulospinal
534
reticular formation of brain stem (medial nuclear group of pons and medulla); both crossed and uncrossed fibers
origin: indirect pathways (decending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
535
ventral horn (as above: by synapse with ventral horn interneurons that influence motor neurons, and occasionally with ventral horn motor neurons directly)
termination: indirect pathways (decending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
536
transmits impulses concerned with muscle tone and many visceral motor functions; may control most unskilled movements
function: indirect pathways (decending): reticulospinal (ventral, medial, and lateral)
537
thoracolumbar outflow; lateral horn of gray matter of spinal cord segments T1-L2
sympathetic: origin
538
ganglia close to CNS: alongside vertebral column (sympathetic trunk ganglia) and anterior to vertebral column (collateral ganglia)
sympathetic: location of ganglia
539
short preganglionic (splanchic nerves are exceptions); long postgonglionic
sympathetic: relative length of pre-and postganglionic axons
540
gray and white rami communicantes; white contain myelinated preganglionic axons; gray contain unmyelinated postganglionic axons
sympathetic: rami communicantes
541
extensive
sympathetic: degree of branching of preganglionic axons
542
prepares body to cope with emergencies and internse muscular activity; fight-or-flight response
sympathetic: functional role
543
all preganglionic axons release ACh; most postganglionic axons release norephinephrine (adrenergic axons); postganglionic axons to sweat glands and blood vessels of skeletal muscles release ACh; neurotransmitter activity augmented by release of adrenal medullary hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
sympathetic: neurotransmitters
544
craniosacral outflow: brain stem nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X; spinal cord segments S2-S4
parasympathetic: origin
545
ganglia in or close to visceral organ served
parasympathetic: location of ganglia
546
long preganglionic; short postganglionic
parasympathetic: relative length of pre- and postganglionic axons
547
none
parasympathetic: rami communicantes
548
minimal
parasympathetic: degree of branching of preganglionic axons
549
maintenance functions; conserves and stores energy; rest and digest response
parasympathetic: functional role
550
all axons, preganglionic and postganglionic, release ACH (cholinergic axons)
parasympathetic: neurotransmitters
551
stimulates constrictor muscles; consricts eye pupils
parasymathetic effects: eye (iris)
552
stimulates ciliar muscles, which results in bulging of the lengs for accommodation and close vision
parasymathetic effects: eye (ciliary muscle)
553
stimulates secretory activity
parasymathetic effects: glands (nasal, lacrimal, salivary, gastric, pancreas)
554
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: sweat glands
555
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: arrector pili muscles attached to hair follicles
556
decreases rate; slows and steadies heart
parasymathetic effects: heart muscle
557
causes vasoconstriction
parasymathetic effects: heart: coronary blood vessels
558
constricts brochoiles
parasymathetic effects: lungs
559
increases motility (peristalsis) and amount of secretion by digestive organs; relaxes sphincters to allow movement of foodstuffs along tract
parasymathetic effects: digestive tract organs
560
no effect
parasymathetic effects: liver
561
stimulates activity (gallbladder contracts to expel bile)
parasymathetic effects: gallbladder
562
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: adrenal medulla
563
no effect
parasymathetic effects: kidney
564
causes contraction of smooth muscle of bladder wall; relaxes urethral sphincter; promotes voiding
parasymathetic effects: bladder, urethra
565
causes erection (vasodilation)
parasymathetic effects: penis
566
inhibits contraction of smooth muscle of uterine wall; causes vasodilation of vessels
parasymathetic effects: uterus
567
causes erection (vasodilation) of clitoris
parasymathetic effects: vagina, clitoris
568
little or no effect
parasymathetic effects: blood vessels
569
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: blood coagulation
570
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: cellular metabolism
571
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: adipose tissue
572
no innervation
parasymathetic effects: mental activity
573
stimulates dilator muscles, dilates eye pupils
sympathetic effects: eye (iris)
574
weakly inhibits ciliar muscles, which flatten the lens for distance vision
sympathetic effects: eye (ciliary muscle)
575
inhibits secretory activity; causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels supplying the glands
sympathetic effects: glands (nasal, lacrimal, salivary, gastric, pancreas)
576
stimulates copious sweating (cholingeric fibers)
sympathetic effects: sweat glands
577
stimulates to contract (erects hairs and produces goose bumps)
sympathetic effects: arrector pili muscles attached to hair follicles
578
increases rate and force of heartbeat
sympathetic effects: heart muscle
579
causes vasodilation
sympathetic effects: heart: coronary blood vessels
580
dilates bronchioles and mildly constricts blood vessels
sympathetic effects: lungs
581
decreases activity of gladns and muscles of digestive system and costricts sphircters (e.g., anal sphincter); causes vasoconstriction
sympathetic effects: digestive tract organs
582
epinephrine stimulates liver to release glucose to blood
sympathetic effects: liver
583
inhibits activity (gallbladder is relaxed)
sympathetic effects: gallbladder
584
stimulates medulla cells to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine into bloodstream
sympathetic effects: adrenal medulla
585
causes vasoconstriction; decreases urine output
sympathetic effects: kidney
586
causes relaxation of smooth muscle of bladder wall; constricts urethral sphincter; inhibits voiding
sympathetic effects: bladder, urethra
587
causes ejaculation
sympathetic effects: penis
588
stimulates contraction of smooth muscle of uterine wall; causes vasoconstriction of vessels
sympathetic effects: uterus
589
causes contraction of vagina
sympathetic effects: vagina, clitoris
590
constricts most vessels and increases blood pressure; consticts vessels of abdominal viscera and skin to divert blood to muscles, brain, and heart when necessary; dilates vessels of the skeletal muscles (cholinergic fibers) during exercise
sympathetic effects: blood vessels
591
increases coagulation
sympathetic effects: blood coagulation
592
increases metabolic rate
sympathetic effects: cellular metabolism
593
stimulates lipolysis (fat breakdown)
sympathetic effects: adipose tissue
594
increases alertness
sympathetic effects: mental activity
595
moves eye laterally
VI (abducens)
VI (abducens)
lateral rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
596
moves eye medially
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
medial rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
597
elevates eye and turns it medially
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
superior rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
598
depresses eye and turns it medially
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
inferior rectus: action and controlling cranial nerve
599
elevates eye and turns it laterally
III (oculomotor)
III (oculomotor)
inferior oblique: action and controlling cranial nerve
600
depresses eye and turns it laterally
IV (trochlear)
IV (trochlear)
superior oblique: action and controlling cranial nerve
601
semicircular ducts
semicircular canals: Membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth)
602
utricle and sacclue
vestibule: Membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth)
603
cochlear duct
cochlea: Membranous labyrinth (within bony labyrinth)
604
equilibrium: rotational (angular) acceleration of the head)
semicircular canals: functions of the membranous labyrinth
605
equilibrium: static equilibrium and linear acceleration of the head
vestibule: functions of the membranous labyrinth
606
hearing
cochlea: functions of the membranous labyrinth
607
hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients
stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood
response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca2+
stimulus: low concentration of Ca2+ in capillary blood
response: parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood Ca2+
humoral stimulus: cause, stimulus, response (examples)
608
hormone release caused by neural input
stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
stimulus: action potentials in preganglionic sympathetic fibers to adrenal medulla
response: adrenal medulla cells secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
neural stimulus: cause, stimulus, response (examples)
609
hormone release caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone)
stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
response: anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones
stimulus: hormones from hypothalamus
response: anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete hormones
hormonal stimulas: cause, stimulus, response (examples)
610
thyroid gland: stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyrotropic cells)
611
adrenal cortex: promotes release of glococorticoids and androgens (mineralocorticoids to a lesser extent)
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (corticotropic cells)
612
ovaries and testes: in females, stimulates ovarian follicle maturation and estrogen production; in males, stimulates sperm production
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (gonadotropic cells)
613
ovaries and testes: in females, triggers ovulation and stimulates ovarian production of estrogen and progesterone; in males, promotes testosterone production
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropic cells)
614
liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues: stimulates protein synthesis and somatic growth; mobilizes fats; increases blood glucose
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: growth hormone (GH) (somatotropic cells)
615
breast secretory tissue: promotes lactation
anterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: prolactin (PRL) (prolactin cells)
616
kidneys: stimulates kdney tubule cells to resorb water
posterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: antidiuretic hormon (ADH), or vasopressin (from neurons in supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus)
617
uterus: stimulates uterine contractions; initiates labor; breast: initiates milk ejection
posterior lobe hormones, target organ and effects: oxytocin (from neurons in paraventricular nucleus hypothalamus)
618
-diabetes insipidus
+syndrome of innapropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)
+syndrome of innapropriate ADH secretion (SIADH)
posterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin (from neurons in supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus)
619
unknown
posterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): oxytocin (from neurons in paraventricular nucleus hypothalamus)
620
-poor milk production in nursing women
+inappropriate milk production (galactorrhea); cessation of menses in females; impotence in males
+inappropriate milk production (galactorrhea); cessation of menses in females; impotence in males
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): prolactin (PRL) (prolactin cells)
621
-pituitary dwarfism in children
+gigantism in children; acromegaly in adults
+gigantism in children; acromegaly in adults
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): growth hormone (GH) (somatotropic cells)
622
as for FSH:
-failure of sexual maturation
+no imortant effects
-failure of sexual maturation
+no imortant effects
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): luteinizing hormone (LH) (gonadotropic cells)
623
-failure of sexual maturation
+no important effects
+no important effects
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (gonadotropic cells)
624
"-rare
+Cushing's disease"
+Cushing's disease"
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (corticotropic cells)
625
"-cretinism in children; myxedema in adults
+hyperthyroidism; effects similar to those of Graves' disease, in which antibodies mimic TSH"
+hyperthyroidism; effects similar to those of Graves' disease, in which antibodies mimic TSH"
anterior lobe hormones, effects of hyposecretion (-) and hypersecretion (+): thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyrotropic cells)
626
biconcave, anuleate disc; salmon-colored; diametr 7-8 um
"erythrocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
627
spherical, nucleated cells
"leukocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
628
nucleus multilobed; inconspicuous cytoplasmic granules; diameter 12-14 um
"neutrophils: description (Wright's stain)"
629
nucleus bilobed; red cytoplasmic granules, diameter 12-15 um
"eosinophils: description (Wright's stain)"
630
nucleus bilobed; large blue-purple cytoplasmic granules; diameter 10-14 um
"basophils: description (Wright's stain)"
631
nucleus spherical or indeted; pale blue cytoplasm; diametr 5-17 um
"lymphocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
632
nucleus U- or kidney-shaped; gray-blue cytoplasm; diameter 14-24 um
"monocytes: description (Wright's stain)"
633
discoid cytoplasmic fragments cointaing graundules; stain deep purple; diameter 2-4 um
"platelets: description (Wright's stain)"
634
4-6 million
erythrocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
635
4800-11000
leukocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
636
3000-7000
neutrophils: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
637
100-400
eosinophils: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
638
20-50
basophils: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
639
1500-3000
lymphocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
640
100-700
monocytes: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
641
150,000-500,000
platelets: number of cells per mm^3 (ul) of blood
642
D: 5-9 days
LS: 100-120 days
LS: 100-120 days
erythrocytes: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
643
D: 7-11 days
LS: 6 hours to a few days
LS: 6 hours to a few days
neutrophils: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
644
D: 7-11 days
LS: about 5 days
LS: about 5 days
eosinophils: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
645
D: 3-7 days
LS: a few hours to a few days
LS: a few hours to a few days
basophils: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
646
D: days to weeks
LS: hours to years
LS: hours to years
lymphocytes: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
647
D: 2-3 days
LS: months
LS: months
monocytes: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
648
D: 4-5 days
LS: 5-10 days
LS: 5-10 days
platelets: duration of development (D) and life span (LS)
649
transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
erythrocytes: function
650
destroy bacteria by phagocytosis
granulocytes: function
651
turn off allergic responses and kill parasites
eosinophils: function
652
release histamine and other mediators of inflammation
basophils: function
653
mount immune response by direct cell attack (T cells) or via antibodies (B cells)
lymphocytes: function
654
phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissues
monocytes: function
655
seal small tears in blood vessels; instrumental in bloodclotting
platelets: function
656
fossa ovalis; diverts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium
foramen ovale: postnatal structure; function in fetus
657
ligamentum arteriosum; diverts blood from the pulmonary trunk to the aorta
ductus arteriosus: postnatal structure; function in fetus
658
ligamentum venosum; carries blood from the umbilical vein through the liver into the IVC
ductus venosus: postnatal structure; function in fetus
659
medial umbilical ligaments; paired vessels carry blood from the fetus to the placenta
umbilical arteries: postnatal structure; function in fetus
660
round ligament of the liver (ligamentum teres); single vessel carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus
umbilical vein: postnatal structure; function in fetus
661
produces mucus; filters, warms, and moistens incoming air; resonance chamber for speech
receptors for sense of smell
receptors for sense of smell
nose: function
662
lighten the skull; help warm, filter, and moisten incoming air
paranasal sinuses: function
663
passageway for air and food
tonsils are lymphoid tissue that responds to inhaled or ingested antigens
tonsils are lymphoid tissue that responds to inhaled or ingested antigens
pharynx: function
664
air passageway; prevents food from entering lower respiratory tract
voice production
voice production
larynx: function
665
air passageway; filters, warms, and moistens incoming air
trachea: function
666
air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli; warms and moistens incoming air
bronchial tree: function
667
main sites of gas exchange
surfactant reduces surface tension; helps prevent alveolar collapse
surfactant reduces surface tension; helps prevent alveolar collapse
alveoli: function
668
house passageways smaller than main bronchi
lungs: function
669
produce lubricating fluid and compartmentalize lungs
pleurae: function
670
external portion supported by bone and cartilage; internal nasal cavity divided in half by midline nasal septum and lined with respiratory mucosa
roof of nasal cavity contains olfactory mucosa
roof of nasal cavity contains olfactory mucosa
nose: description, general and distinctive features
671
mucosa-lined hollow cavities within the sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary, and frontal bones
paranasal sinuses: description, general and distinctive features
672
passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx and oral covity to esophagus; three subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and largypharynx
houses tonsils
houses tonsils
pharynx: description, general and distinctive features
673
connects pharynx to trachea; framework of cartilage and dense connective tissue; opening (rima glottidis) can be closed by epiglottis or vocal folds
houses true vocal cords
houses true vocal cords
larynx: description, general and distinctive features
674
flexible tube running from larynx and dividing inferiorly into two main (primary) bronchi; walls contain C-shaped cartilages that are incomplete posteriorly where trachealis muscle occurs
trachea: description, general and distinctive features
675
consists of right and left main bronchi, which subdivide within the lungs to form lobar (secondary) and segmental (tertiary) bronchi, smaller bronchi, and bronchioles; bronchiolar walls contain complete layer of smooth muscle; constriction of this muscle impedes expiration
brochial tree: description, general and distinctive features
676
microscopic chambers at end of bronchial tree; walls of simple squamous epithelium--type I alveolar cells--underlain by thin basement membrane; external surfaces intimately associated with pulmonary capillaries
simple cuboidal epithelium--type II alveolar cells--produce surfactant
simple cuboidal epithelium--type II alveolar cells--produce surfactant
alveoli: description, general and distinctive features
677
paired composite organs located within pleural cavities of thorax; composed primarily of alveoli and respiratory passageways; stroma is fibrous elastic connective tissue, allowing lungs to recoil passively during expiration
lungs: description, general and distinctive features
678
serous membranes; parietal pleura lines thoracic cavity; visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces
pleurae: description, general and distinctive features
679
"""near the heart"", ring-shaped zone of the stomach encircling the cardial orifice at the junction with the esophagus"
cardia
680
large midportion of the stomach
body (stomach)
681
occur mainly in the basal parts of the glands; make and secrete the enzymatic protein pepsinogen, also secrete gastric lipase which functions in fat digestion
chief (zymogenic) cells
682
or plicae circulares, permanent, transverse ridges of the mucosa and submucosa, increase the absorptive surface area, force the chyme to spiral through the intestinal lumen slowing its movement and allowing time for complete absorption of nutrients
circular folds
683
these cells contain many mitochondria because the uptake of digested nutrients is an energy-demanding process. they also contain an abundant endoplasmic reticulum, which assembles the newly absorbed lipid molecules into lipid-protein complexes called cholymicrons. once made, the chylomicrons enter the lacteal capillaries, so it is in this form that absorbed fat enters the circulation.
absorptive enterocytes
684
"""blind pouch"" saclike beginning of the large intestine, in the right iliac fossa"
cecum
685
acute inflammation of the appendix, resulting from a blockage that traps infectious bacteria within its lumen
appendicitis
686
immediate surgical removal of the appendix
appendectomy
687
several distinct segments
colon
688
ascends along the right side of the posterior abdominal wall in a secondarily retroperitoneal position and reaches the level of the right kidney where it makes a right-angle turn, the right colic flexure (or hepatic flexure)
ascending colon
689
begins where the rectum passes through the levator ani, lies entirely external to the abdominopelvic cavity in the perineum
anal canal
690
longitudinal folds of mucosa contained in the superior half of the internal anal canal, contain the terminal portions of the superior rectal artery and vein (the hemorrhoidal vessels)
anal columns
691
cresent-shaped transverse folds where neighboring anal columns join each other inferiorly
anal valves
692
pockets just superior to the anal valves which release mucus when they are compressed by feces, providing lubrication that eases fecal passage during defecation
anal sinuses
