BIOL exam review Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
anatomy of the cerebellum (inc. fissures and lobes)
A
2 fissures are horizontal and primary; 3 lobes are anterior, posterior, and flocculonodular; foldings are called folia; and arbor vitae is the tree structure
2
Q
superior cerebellar peduncle
A
projects to the red thalamus and the thalamus
3
Q
middle cerebellar peduncle
A
carries information from the voluntary nucleus to the pontine nucleus
4
Q
inferior cerebellar peduncle
A
carries information for balance and equilibrium
5
Q
what in the hypothalamus regulates sleep?
A
the suprachiasmatic nucleus
6
Q
what are the falx?
A
extensions of dura mater
7
Q
where is the primary gustatory centre?
A
located in the insular lobe
8
Q
where is the primary auditory centre?
A
located below the gustatory centre in the superior temporal lobe or sylvian fissure
9
Q
anatomy of dura mater
A
dense irregular CT
10
Q
process of CSF reabsorption name
A
arachnoid granulation
11
Q
RAS anatomy
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white and grey matter arranged in a net and includes ascending and descending tracts
12
Q
3 nuclei of the RAS
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lateral, medial, and raphe
13
Q
functions of the RAS
A
behaviour, consciousness, falling asleep, waking up, and preventing sensory overload
14
Q
cerebral peduncles
A
are extensions of the corticospinal tract and connect the cerebrum to the lower CNS; located in the ventral midbrain and pons
15
Q
where is the hypothalamus located?
A
anterior to the thalamus
16
Q
pons functions
A
respiration (via pneumotaxic and apneustic centres), connection between the cerebellum, and pontine nucleus
17
Q
pontine nucleus
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functions for the coordination of voluntary motor control
18
Q
CSF composition
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water, solutes (Na, K, Ca, Mg), lactic acid, glucose, urea, proteins, and sometimes WBCs
19
Q
functions of CSF
A
protection, buoyancy, removal of waste, nourishment, and homeostasis via hormones from the hypothalamus
20
Q
inferior olivary nuclei
A
relay sensory information from muscles and joints to the cerebellum
21
Q
olives in medulla
A
contains many nuclei including inferior olivary, respiratory, cardiovascular, sneezing, vomiting, and coughing
22
Q
what do somites develop into?
A
the dermis, skeletal muscle, and the axial skeleton
23
Q
what does the neural crest develop into?
A
the PNS
24
Q
what does the notochord develop into?
A
the nucleus pulposus of the vertebrae
25
what is the neural plate derived from?
the ectoderm
26
notochord
is derived from the mesoderm and is a cartilage rod in embryos
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anatomy of ependymal cells
cuboidal with cilia
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where is the tectum reflex located?
the midbrain
29
function of posterior and anterior lobes of the cerebellum
subconscious control of skeletal muscle
30
function of flocculonodular lobe
balance and equilibrium
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are peduncles white or grey matter?
white
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parietal lobe functions
touch, taste, and smell
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Lateral cerebral sulcus
divides frontal and temporal lobes from the parietal lobe
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straight sinus
at the bottom of the skull and receives blood from the inferior sagittal sinus that will later be returned to venous blood supply
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strong acid + weak base
HCl + NaHCO3 > NaCl + H2CO3
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strong base + weak acid
NaOH + H2CO3 > NaHCO3 + H20
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relaxed bladder
motor neurons are firing, detrusor muscle is relaxed, and sphincter are contracted
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full bladder
motor neurons stop firing and stretch receptors fire, detrusor muscle is contracted, and sphincters are relaxed
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what cells does ADH act on?
principal cells, specifically binds to V2 receptors
40
what does aldosterone bind to?
mineralocorticoid receptors in the cytoplasm
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what is aldosterone produced by?
the adrenal cortex
42
what does H+ buffer with in the urine?
NH3 and HPO4--, forming NH4+ and H2PO4-
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hormones released when calcium is low
PTH and calcitriol
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hormone released when calcium is high
calcitonin
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where are proton pumps found?
intercalated cells in the CD
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what does ANG II bind to?
AT1 receptors
47
renal capsule anatomy
innermost layer and is fibrous, irregular CT
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renal fascia anatomy
outermost layer and is dense irregular CT and collagen
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3 layers of the ureters
transitional epithelium with lamina propria, 2 layers of muscularis, and adventitia
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adventitia anatomy
fibrous irregular CT
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bladder 3 layers
transitional epithelium with lamina propria, goblet cells, and rugae, muscularis which is 3 layers of detrusor, and adventitia or serosa (only superior region)
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urethra epithelium
transitional near top, pseudostratified columnar in middle, and nonkeratinized stratified squamous at bottom
53
macula densa cells function and locaton
are chemoreceptors that respond to NaCl concentration are are found lining the ascending limb
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mesangial cells function and location
send signals between MD and JG cells and control HSP via contractile abilities and are found between the tubule cells and the arterioles
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JG cells function and location
are mechanoreceptors that sense BP and contract and/or release renin and are found lining the afferent arteriole
56
general vs special senses
general senses have their cells distributed throughout the body whereas special senses have an organ devoted to them, ex. the ear
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somatic sense
detect mechanical stimuli and are all tactile senses (touch), pain, and proprioception
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visceral sense
are conscious/subconsciousness awareness of visceral organs, ex. blood pressure
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first order neurons
receive sensory information from sensory receptors are there are three types (free nerve endings, encapsulated endings, and specialized receptor cells)
60
second order neurons
synapse with FON in the dorsal horn or medullary nuclei and extend up to the thalamus or cerebellum to synapse with TON
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third order neurons
synapse with SON in the thalamus and extend to the postcentral gyrus in the primary somatosensory area
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where does the gracile fasciculus receive input from?
the lower limbs
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where does the cuneate fasciculus receive input from?
the upper limbs
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dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway
FON will travel from the sensory receptor to the spinal cord and up the gracile or cuneate ascending pathway; it will synapse with the SON in the gracile or cuneate nucleus of the medulla and then immediately decussate; this will synapse with the TON in the thalamus and extend up to the primary somatosensory area in the postcentral gyrus
65
free-nerve endings
dendrites will detect the stimulus directly and these are abundant in epithelia and CT; associated with pain, temperature, and light touch
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encapsulated endings
dendrites are wrapped in a specialized CT and these are associated with mechanical stimuli like pressure and vibration; ex. meissner's corpuscles and pacinian corpuscles
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specialised-receptor cells
FON interacts with a neurotransmitter released by a specialised receptor cell; usually is associated with the special senses
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proprioceptor
sensory receptors that respond to stretch in muscles, ligaments, tendons, etc. and inform the brain of one's movement
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adaptation
refers to how quickly you become acclimated to a stimulus when it is sustained; types are rapidly adapting and slow adapting
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basal nuclei
group of CNS neurons that are involved in emotion and habitual behaviour; includes the caudate nucleus and the putamen
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examples of direct pathways
anterior and lateral corticospinal tracts; UMNs synapse directly with LMNs
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lateral corticospinal tract
decussates and controls fine, precise movements of the digits
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anterior corticospinal tract
does not decussate and controls posture and balance in the axial muscles
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3 main differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
their origin sites, the length of their fibres, and the location of their ganglia
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origin site of parasympathetic system
brain and sacral spinal cord, hence crainosacral
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origin site of sympathetic system
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, hence thoracolumbar
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length of parasympathetic fibres
long preganglionic and short postganglionic
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length of sympathetic fibres
short preganglionic and long postganglionic
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location of ganglia for parasympathetic system
near their effector
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location of ganglia for sympathetic system
near the spinal cord, forming the sympathetic trunk
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preganglionic fibres
cell body is located in the CNS and axon is myelinated
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postganglionic fibres
cell body is located in PNS and axon is unmyelinated
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thoracolumbar region landmarks
T1-L2
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3 splanic nerves and function
greater, lesser, and lumbar; these innervate the celiac plexus to inhibit digestion
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ventral ramus
is one of the two primary branches exiting the spinal nerve and further breaks down into white and grey rami communicantes
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white ramus communicantes
carries the preganglionic fibre that is myelinated to synapse with the post in the sympathetic trunk
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grey ramus communicantes
carries the postganglionic fibres that is unmyelinated after it synapses with the pre in the sympathetic trunk
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sympathetic trunk
is a chain of sympathetic ganglia lying on either side of the spinal cord
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passing through the trunk without synapsing
the preganglionic nerve will travel through additional branches to the splanic nerve to synapse in a distant collateral ganglion; associated with controlling organs in the abdominal cavity
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visceral reflex
has the same components as a normal reflex arc but the effector is a viscera and there is a pre and post nerve
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two types of general senses
somatic senses and visceral senses
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components of tears
water, saline, lysozyme, antibodies, and mucus
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cornea composition
stratified squamous on one side and simple squamous on the other side; Na pumps keep inside clear; nerve endings are abundant here
94
retinal in the presence of light
takes the all-trans shape
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trochlea
is the fibrocartilaginous ring that the tendon of the superior oblique muscle hooks through
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ora serrata
is the point where the retina terminates into the posterior ciliary body
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where does aqueous humor come from?
capillaries of ciliary bodies
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where is aqueous humor drained from?
scleral venous sinus
99
retinal
is a vitamin A derived molecule and part of the rhodopsin complex; can take 11-cis or all-trans shape
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PDE
phosphodiesterase
101
phototransduction in the photoreceptor simple
light presence causes retinal to take all-trans shape, releasing G protein transducin; this binds to PDE which converts cGMP to GMP; this causes the cation gates to close and for the cell to hyperpolarize and for no neurotransmitter to be released
102
visual pathway G protein name
transducin
103
olfactory epithelium
is pseudostratified ciliated (nonmotile) epithelium; mucus secreting columnar cells and basal cells are also present
104
what is superior to the olfactory epithelium?
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and mitral cells
105
olfactory G-protein pathway simple
odorant binding to a receptor releasing G protein Golf; this binds to adenylate cyclase; this converts ATP to Camp; this causes cation channels to open and for depolarization to occur
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most abundant papillae
fungiform
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foliate papillae
found on the lateral sides of the tongue
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two main cells for taste
gustatory cells and basal cells
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cranial nerves for taste
facial is responsible for the first 2/3 of the tongue; glossopharyngeal is posterior 1/3; vagus is epiglottis
110
gustatory pathway for salty and sour
Na+ and H+ ions simply move into channels and cause a depolarization of the membrane, firing an AP
111
gustatory pathway for sweet, bitter, and umami
tastant molecule binds to a receptor, releasing G protein gustducin; this binds to phospholipase C; this causes IP3 to causes Ca+ intracellular stores to be released, causing a depolarization and an AP
112
where do vibrations travel through in the cochlea?
first the scala vestibuli then the scala tympani; at the scala tympani, the vibrations are transmitted to the basilar membrane which vibrates against the stationary tectorial membrane, causing the hair cells to bend
113
organ of corti
is located within the cochlea and transmits sound vibrations into electrical signals through the cranial nerve VIII
114
what are the name of hair cells in the organ of corti?
stereocilia
115
organ of corti, which membrane is moving and which is stationary?
the basilar membrane is moving and the tectorial membrane is stationary
116
semicircular canals
detect rotational acceleration along 3 axis
117
what are otoliths?
CaCO3 crystals embedded in gel at the tips of stereocilia
118
urticle
detects horizontal movement
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saccule
detects vertical movement
120
temporal vs nasal sides in the visual pathway
nasal decussates whereas temporal does not
121
visual pathway synapses
FON will synapse with the SON in the thalamus and project to occipital lobe; decussation occurs for nasal side only
122
olfactory pathway synapses
FON will synapse with SON (mitral cell) and extend to the primary olfactory centre; no decussation occurs
123
gustatory pathway synapses
FON synapses with SON in the gustatory nucleus in the medulla; SON synapses with TON in the thalamus; TON extends to primary somatosensory region; no decussation occurs
124
auditory pathway synapses
FON will synapse with SON in the lower pons (decussation may occur here); SON synapses with TON in the upper pons; TON extends to inferior colliculi of the midbrain to synapse with another neuron; this neuron synapses with another neuron in the thalamus which extends to the primary somatosensory region
