Social Psychology - Domain Quiz

Question 1

A friend says, “Every time I plan a vacation, there’s always a crisis at home or work so that I can’t go.” Assuming that this is not really true, your friend’s statement best illustrates which of the following?
Select one:

a. psychological reactance
b. deindividuation
c. fundamental attribution bias
d. illusory correlation

Answer 1

For the exam, you want to be familiar with all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question. Additional information about them is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer D is correct: The illusory correlation is the tendency to believe that two unrelated events are related.

Answer A is incorrect: Psychological reactance is the tendency to resist being influenced by another person when that person’s request is perceived as a threat to personal freedom.

Answer B is incorrect: Deindividuation refers to the state of anonimity that a person experiences as a member of a group and has been linked to an increased willingness to engage in antisocial behavior.

Answer C is incorrect: The fundamental attribution bias is the tendency to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational causes when making attributions about another person’s behavior.

The correct answer is: illusory correlation

Question 2

A person is exhibiting a ____________ when she tends to pay more attention to messages and experiences that support her view on a controversial issue while ignoring those that discredit her view.
Select one:

a. cognitive consistency bias
b. confirmation bias
c. halo bias
d. self-serving bias

Answer 2

A number of biases have been identified by investigators interested in decision-making and memory.

Answer B is correct: A confirmation bias (Silverman, 1992) is the tendency to believe and pay attention to experiences that support our views and ignore experiences that discredit them.

Answer A is incorrect: Cognitive consistency theory predicts that behaviors that are inconsistent with an established attitude are susceptible to change.

Answer C is incorrect: The halo bias occurs when a person’s status or performance on one dimension affects how a rater rates him or her on all other dimensions.

Answer D is incorrect: A self-serving bias occurs when a person attributes positive outcomes to internal (dispositional) factors and negative outcomes to external (situational) factors.

The correct answer is: confirmation bias

Question 3

A student who is chronically depressed is most likely to attribute the low score he received on his final exam to:
Select one:

a. his lack of ability.
b. the lack of time he had to study.
c. the difficulty of the exam items.
d. the instructor’s ineptitude.

Answer 3

This question is asking about the learned helplessness model of depression.

Answer A is correct: The studies on learned helplessness have found that people who are depressed often attribute their failures to internal, stable, and global factors.

The correct answer is: his lack of ability.

Question 4

Based on his investigation of the relationship between affiliation and anxiety, Schachter (1959) concluded that which of the following best accounted for the desire of high-anxiety research participants to wait with other high-anxiety participants?
Select one:

a. demand characteristics
b. evaluation apprehension
c. relief from discomfort
d. social comparison

Answer 4

This question is referring to Schachter’s (1959) “misery loves miserable company” study, which is described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer D is correct: Because high-anxiety participants preferred to wait with others for a study to begin only when the others were also highly anxious, Schachter concluded that the desire to affiliate is best explained by social comparison – i.e., the participant’s desire to evaluate his or her own anxiety by comparing it to the anxiety of another participant.

The correct answer is: social comparison

Question 5

Berscheid’s (1983) emotion-in-relationship model proposes that strong positive emotions are LESS likely to be elicited during the later stages of an intimate relationship than in its initial stages because, in the later stages:
Select one:

a. each partner is more self-centered and less other-centered.
b. each partner’s behavior has become more predictable.
c. each partner works harder to be sensitive to the other’s needs.
d. each partner tend to focus more on other relationships.

Answer 5

The emotion-in-relationship model predicts that emotion is aroused by unusual or unexpected events.

Answer B is correct: Berscheid’s model proposes that, in the later stages of a relationship, a partner is less likely to do something that is unexpected. For example, an extravagant birthday present is a pleasant surprise during the first and second year of a relationship but, by the 12th year, has become expected.

The correct answer is: each partner’s behavior has become more predictable.

Question 6

Equity theory predicts that a person’s satisfaction in a close personal relationship is related to the person’s:
Select one:

a. perceptions of his or her reward or cost ratio and the ratio of the other person.
b. perceptions of the relative utility of the relationship.
c. comparisons between his or her current relationship and past relationships.
d. comparisons between his or her own relationship and the relationships of others.

Answer 6

As its name suggests, equity theory predicts that we are satisfied with relationships that we perceive to be equitable.

Answer A is correct: According to this theory, we evaluate equity by comparing our input or outcome (reward or cost) ratio to the ratio of the other person.

The correct answer is: perceptions of his or her reward or cost ratio and the ratio of the other person.

Question 7

Research on attraction suggests that competent, intelligent people are:
Select one:

a. liked more when they act in a consistently competent manner.
b. liked more when they occasionally make a blunder.
c. liked more when they hide their intelligence.
d. not liked as much as less competent, less intelligent people.

Answer 7

The research has found that attraction to others is affected by a number of factors including perceptions of the other person’s competence.

Answer B is correct: The studies have confirmed that “to err is humanizing” – i.e., people like competent people most if they occasionally make a small blunder.

The correct answer is: liked more when they occasionally make a blunder.

Question 8

Rosenhan’s research involving “pseudopatients” who were admitted to psychiatric hospitals:
Select one:

a. confirmed that participation in a research study alters the behaviors of research participants.
b. demonstrated that labeling a person changes the person’s behavior.
c. showed that the environment influences how a person’s behavior is interpreted.
d. showed that “central traits” have a greater impact than other traits on impression formation.

Answer 8

Rosenhan’s (1973) pseudopatient study confirmed that impression formation is affected by the context in which it occurs.

Answer C is correct: Individuals (confederates) who were admitted to a psychiatric hospital as the result of their claim of hearing voices were subsequently judged by the staff (and, to a lesser degree, by fellow patients) as being schizophrenic even though they had stopped faking symptoms and acted normally when interacting with staff and patients. Rosenhan concluded that these results demonstrated the impact of the social environment on impression formation.

The correct answer is: showed that the environment influences how a person’s behavior is interpreted.

Question 9

Self-verification theory predicts that a husband who has low self-esteem and is overweight and chronically depressed will prefer his wife to:
Select one:

a. not comment on his abilities, weight, and mood.
b. make neutral comments about his abilities, weight, and mood.
c. confirm his negative self-evaluations.
d. challenge his negative self-evaluations.

Answer 9

As its name suggests, self-verification theory predicts that people who have positive self-concepts prefer to interact with others who confirm those self-concepts and vice versa.

Answer C is correct: Self-verification theory proposes that we seek information that is consistent with our self-evaluations.

The correct answer is: confirm his negative self-evaluations.

Question 10

The statement, “You fell because you tripped, but I fell because I was pushed” BEST illustrates which of the following?
Select one:

a. self-perception bias
b. actor-observer effect
c. fundamental attribution bias
d. low self-monitoring

Answer 10

In the situation described in the question, you are attributing your own behavior to a situational factor but the behavior of another person to a dispositional factor.

Answer B is correct: The tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to dispositional factors and our own behaviors to situational factors is referred to as the actor-observer effect.

The correct answer is: actor-observer effect

Question 11

The tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors when inferring the cause of another person’s behavior is referred to as the:
Select one:

a. self-serving bias.
b. actor-observer effect.
c. fundamental attribution bias.
d. self-perception bias.

Answer 11

For the exam, you want to be familiar with the characteristics of all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question, which are described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer C is correct: This question describes the fundamental attribution bias which is the tendency to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors.

The correct answer is: fundamental attribution bias.

Question 12

According to Moscovici (1985), group members espousing the minority position are most likely to change the opinion of the majority when:
Select one:

a. members supporting the minority position have accumulated “idiosyncrasy credits.”
b. members supporting the minority position are consistent in expressing their opinions without being dogmatic.
c. the number of people representing the minority opinion is only slightly less than the number of people respresenting the majority position.
d. the minority leader is viewed by group members as having legitimate power.

Answer 12

Moscovici contends that, to influence others, people holding a minority position must use different strategies than those who agree with the majority position.

Answer B is correct: Moscovici argues that, to change the opinion of the majority, the minority must present its position in a firm, consistent manner without appearing to be rigid or dogmatic.

The correct answer is: members supporting the minority position are consistent in expressing their opinions without being dogmatic.

Question 13

According to the elaboration likelihood model, a person is most likely to rely on the “central route” for processing information when:
Select one:

a. he thinks the message is boring.
b. everyone else in the group agrees with the message.
c. the message is within his “latitude of acceptance.”
d. he is in a neutral or slightly negative mood.

Answer 13

The elaboration likelihood model proposes that persuasion can involve either a central or peripheral route and that each route is associated with different conditions and outcomes.

Answer D is correct: According to this model, we are more likely to use the central route for processing a persuasive message when we are in a neutral or slightly negative mood but the peripheral route when we are in a positive mood. See the Social Psychology chapter for additional information on this model.

The correct answer is: he is in a neutral or slightly negative mood.

Question 14

Aronson and Mills (1959) examined the effects of severity of initiation into an uninteresting group on subsequent attitudes toward the group. Results of their study indicated that, in comparison to women who underwent a mild initiation, women who underwent a severe initiation as a precondition of group membership:
Select one:

a. rated the group as less interesting and enjoyable.
b. rated the group as more interesting and enjoyable.
c. were more likely to drop out of the group at the end of the initation.
d. were more likely to say they disliked fellow group members.

Answer 14

Knowing that the results of the Aronson and Mills study are used to support cognitive dissonance theory would have helped you identify the correct answer to this question.

Answer B is correct: As predicted by cognitive dissonance theory, when women underwent a difficult initiation to get into a dull group, they experienced dissonance, which they attempted to resolve by deciding that the group was interesting and enjoyable.

The correct answer is: rated the group as more interesting and enjoyable.

Question 15

A supervisor attempts to increase his influence by being sensitive to the needs of his subordinates and by acting as a role model. This supervisor is relying on which of the bases of power identified by French and Raven (1959)?
Select one:

a. referent
b. legitimate
c. expert
d. charismatic

Answer 15

For the exam, you want to be familiar with the six bases of power identified by French and Raven:

coercive: Influencing agent has control over punishments.
reward: Influencing agent has control over valued rewards and resources.
expert: Influencing agent is believed to have superior ability, rewards, and resources.
referent: Target person is attracted to, likes, or identifies with the influencing agent.
legitimate: Target person believes the influencing agent has legitimate authority.
informational: Influencing agent possesses specific information that is needed by the target person.

These are described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer A is correct: A person has referent power when he or she is admired, liked, or respected by other people and or or is viewed as a role model.

The correct answer is: referent

Question 16

Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) offered participants in a dull experiment either $1.00 or $20.00 to tell potential participants that the experiment was very interesting and were subsequently asked to evaluate the experiment. The results of the study:
Select one:

a. were consistent with the predictions of both cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory.
b. contradicted the predictions of both cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory.
c. were consistent with the predictions of cognitive dissonance theory but contradicted the predictions of self-perception theory.
d. contradicted the predictions of cognitive dissonance theory but were consistent with the predictions of self-perception theory.

Answer 16

In the Festinger and Carlsmith study, the $1.00 participants were more likely than the $20.00 participants to say they had actually enjoyed the dull experiment.

Answer A is correct: This result was consistent with cognitive dissonance theory (which predicts that we change a cognition or behavior to reduce dissonance) and with self-perception theory (which predicts that we evaluate our internal state by looking at our external behavior).

The correct answer is: were consistent with the predictions of both cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory.

Question 17

Research on factors that influence attitude change has found that, when the communicator is mildly to moderately credible, attitude change is greatest when the level of discrepancy between the initial positions of the communicator and the recipient of the communication is:
Select one:

a. large.
b. moderate.
c. small.
d. unpredictable.

Answer 17

The studies have found that attitude change is a function of both the initial level of discrepancy and the credibility of the communicator.

Answer B is correct: Change in attitude is greatest when the initial level of discrepancy is in the moderate range, especially when the communicator is mildly to moderately credible.

The correct answer is: moderate.

Question 18

Sam has always been very fond of bowling. However, his new girlfriend, Sally, hates bowling. According to _________, in this situation, Sam will be motivated to change his feelings about bowling.
Select one:

a. social judgment theory
b. equity theory
c. balance theory
d. the emotion-in-relationship model

Answer 18

For the exam, you want to be familiar with the predictions of all of the theories listed in the answers to this question, and these are described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer C is correct: Balance theory predicts that people prefer to have consistent cognitions and will be motivated to change a cognition in order to reduce the disequilibrium they feel when they experience inconsistency. It also focuses on the relationships between three entities – the person, another person, and a third person, object, event, or activity.

The correct answer is: balance theory

Question 19

Sherif (1935) used the autokinetic effect to study:
Select one:

a. attitude inoculation.
b. psychological reactance.
c. conformity to group norms.
d. bases of social power.

Answer 19

Sherif was among the first researchers to study factors that affect willingness to conform to group norms.

Answer C is correct: Sherif used an ambiguous stimulus (the autokinetic effect) to study conformity to group norms. Additional information about his research is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

The correct answer is: conformity to group norms.

Question 20

Sherif and Hovland’s (1961) social judgment theory predicts that a person’s “latitude of rejection” is largest when the person:
Select one:

a. has high ego-involvement with the target issue.
b. has an external locus of control.
c. is unfamiliar with the target issue.
d. is in a good mood.

Answer 20

Social judgment theory distinguishes between three categories of judgment that influence how we evaluate persuasive messages:

Latitude of acceptance
Latitude of non-commitment
Latitude of rejection

Answer A is correct: According to this theory, the magnitude of the three categories is affected by the person’s level of ego-involvement with the target issue. Not surprisingly, when a person has high ego-involvement, he or she is less likely to be persuaded (i.e., his or her latitude of rejection is large). Additional information about social judgment theory is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

The correct answer is: has high ego-involvement with the target issue.

Question 21

To “inoculate” someone against a persuasive message, you would:
Select one:

a. warn the person that she is about to hear a message designed to change her beliefs.
b. provide the person with information that supports her current beliefs.
c. provide the person with strong arguments against her beliefs.
d. provide the person with arguments against her beliefs and weak refutations of those arguments.

Answer 21

McGuire (1969) derived his notion of attitude inoculation from the use of inoculation in medicine.

Answer D is correct: McGuire found that resistance to persuasion was significantly increased with individuals were provided with arguments against their own position and weak counterarguments prior to hearing the persuasive message.

The correct answer is: provide the person with arguments against her beliefs and weak refutations of those arguments.

Question 22

Which of the following predicts that instituting a law that raises the minimum drinking age for purchasing alcohol from 18 to 21 will increase underage drinking among college students?
Select one:

a. the inoculation model
b. cognitive dissonance theory
c. psychological reactance theory
d. the deindividuation model

Answer 22

For the exam, you want to be familiar with all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question, and these are described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer C is correct: In the situation described in this question, it is predicted that college students will do the opposite of what is required by law – i.e., they will do the opposite of what is desired in a situation in which their personal freedom is being thwarted. This is referred to as psychological reactance.

The correct answer is: psychological reactance theory

Question 23

According to Hays (2001), which of the following groups holds privilege?
Select one:

a. Individuals with disabilities
b. Individuals with lower socioeconomic status
c. Immigrants
d. Males

Answer 23

Answer D is correct: According to Hays’ acronym for understanding privilege, ADDRESSING, the following groups hold privilege: individuals between the ages of 30-60, individuals who do not have a disability, individuals who hold secular or Christian beliefs, individuals who claim Euro-American heritage, individuals who are middle or upper class, individuals who are heterosexual, individuals who are not of indigenous heritage, individuals who were born or grew up in the country where they live, and male individuals.

The correct answer is: Males

Question 24

A national survey finds that, while most people are in favor of integration in the workplace, the majority also oppose affirmative action. This finding is best explained by which of the following?
Select one:

a. illusory correlation
b. contact hypothesis
c. symbolic racism
d. scapegoat theory

Answer 24

Sears and his colleagues (e.g., Sears, 1988) have proposed that traditional blatant forms of racism have been replaced by more subtle forms.

Answer C is correct: Symbolic racism is characterized by a tendency to support equality as an abstract principle while opposing concrete methods for achieving it. Additional information on symbolic racism is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials.

Answer A is incorrect: Illusory correlation is the tendency to perceive a relationship between events that are not actually related.

Answer B is incorrect: The contact hypothesis proposes that prejudice may be reduced by contact between members of majority and minority groups when members of the groups have equal status and power and are provided with opportunities to disconfirm negative stereotypes.

Answer D is incorrect: Scapegoat theory was derived from the frustration-aggression hypothesis and proposes that prejudice is the result of displaced aggression.

The correct answer is: symbolic racism

Question 25

Berkowitz's (1971) version of the frustration-aggression hypothesis proposes that frustration creates a readiness for aggression but that the expression of aggression also requires which of the following? Select one: a. an expectation that aggression will be reinforced b. the belief that aggression is effective c. high levels of physiological arousal d. the presence of an aggressive cue

Answer 25

The original frustration-aggression hypothesis has been modified to include other factors. Answer D is correct: Research by Berkowitz and colleagues found that frustration was more likely to lead to aggression in the presence of a gun or other aggressive cue. The correct answer is: the presence of an aggressive cue

Question 26

Herek (1992) attributes violence against gays and lesbians to: Select one: a. heterosexism. b. homophobia. c. symbolic racism. d. intergroup prejudice.

Answer 26

As defined by Herek, heterosexism is an "ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes among non-heterosexual forms of behavior, identity, relationships, or community" (1992, p. 150). Answer A is correct: According to Herek, violence against gays and lesbians is the result of a combination of psychological (individual) and cultural heterosexism. Answer B is incorrect: Herek views the term homophobia as ambiguous and imprecise and replaced it with three terms -- sexual stigma, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice. Answer C is incorrect: The term symbolic racism is used to describe recent forms of racism that reject some of the beliefs and behaviors associated with traditional ("old-fashioned") racism. Answer D is incorrect: Herek does not use the term intergroup prejudice to describe the cause of violence against gays and lesbians. The correct answer is: heterosexism.

Question 27

The __________ proposes that aggressive impulses "build up" inside an individual and must be released and that such release reduces the risk for future aggression. Select one: a. displaced aggression hypothesis b. contact hypothesis c. catharsis hypothesis d. deindividual model

Answer 27

Several theories have been developed to explain aggressive behavior. Answer C is correct: One implication of the catharsis hypothesis is that watching someone else engage in violence (e.g., watching a violent TV show) will lead to catharsis, which will then reduce the risk of aggressive behavior in the future. The catharsis hypothesis has not been well-supported by the research. Answer A is incorrect: Displaced aggression refers to aggression that varies in either type or target from that actually preferred by the aggressor. Answer B is incorrect: The contact hypothesis was proposed by Allport as a method for reducing hostility and prejudice between members of majority and minority groups. Answer D is incorrect: The deindividuation model predicts that people may be more willing to act aggressively when acting as a group member than when acting alone because of the anonymity that the group provides. The correct answer is: catharsis hypothesis

Question 28

With regard to the reduction of racial or ethnic discrimination, Gordon Allport (1954) concluded that: Select one: a. folkways must always precede stateways. b. stateways must always precede folkways. c. it is not always necessary for folkways to precede stateways. d. it is necessary for folkways and stateways to change simultaneously.

Answer 28

Answer C is correct. As defined by Allport (1954): Folkways are personal attitudes and beliefs, while stateways are laws. Allport concluded that stateways can effectively precede folkways. In other words, he believed that laws prohibiting discrimination can be effective even when they do not reflect public consensus. The correct answer is: it is not always necessary for folkways to precede stateways.

Question 29

Zimbardo's (1972) prison study illustrated the impact of which of the following on behavior? Select one: a. psychopathology b. group conformity c. deindividuation d. social roles

Answer 29

In Zimbardo's (1972) prison study, students were randomly assigned to enact the role of either a prisoner or prison guard and were placed in an environment that simulated an actual prison. Answer D is correct: Zimbardo's (1972) prison study confirmed that people often alter their behaviors so that they are consistent with assigned roles: Even though students had been randomly assigned to the role of prisoner or guard, they quickly adopted behaviors consisted with their roles. The correct answer is: social roles

Question 30

A person is most likely to be helped in an emergency situation when: Select one: a. there is a single bystander. b. there are several bystanders. c. there are several bystanders of the same gender. d. there are several bystanders of the opposite gender.

Answer 30

This question is asking about the results of research on bystander intervention. Answer A is correct: The studies have found that, the greater the number of bystanders, the less likely that a victim will receive assistance. See the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials for additional information about bystander intervention. The correct answer is: there is a single bystander.

Question 31

Movie viewers are most likely to say they feel uncomfortable in a crowded movie theater when the movie is: Select one: a. a violent action film. b. a sexually arousing film. c. an amusing comedy. d. a boring documentary.

Answer 31

The effects of crowding depend on several factors including the nature of the situation in which it occurs. Answer D is correct: Research on crowding has found that people tend to be bothered most by crowding in unarousing, uninteresting situations (e.g., while watching a boring documentary). The correct answer is: a boring documentary.

Question 32

Research by Sherif et al. (1961) suggests that, to decrease hostility between groups of junior high school students, you would be best advised to: Select one: a. increase opportunities for social contact under pleasant conditions. b. have a respected member of the community speak to the students about the benefits of cooperation. c. assign the students goals that can be achieved only through intergroup cooperation. d. have each group select a represenative to discuss ways to reduce hostility.

Answer 32

This question is asking about the results of Sherif et al.'s Robber's Cave Study. Additional information about this study is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. Answer C is correct: The results of the Robber's Cave study found that the most effective way for reducing intergroup hostility was to introduce SUPERORDINATE GOALS that could be accomplished only through intergroup cooperation. The correct answer is: assign the students goals that can be achieved only through intergroup cooperation.

Question 33

Research investigating the effects of the "jigsaw method" in the classroom has demonstrated that it: Select one: a. increases aggression, especially toward the provocateur. b. reduces racial or ethnic stereotyping. c. increases intergroup competition. d. has a negative effect on academic achievement.

Answer 33

The jigsaw method involves having teams of students work together to complete an assignment, with each member being assigned a different task or aspect of the assignment. Answer B is correct: The jigsaw method has been found to have a number of beneficial effects, including raising self-esteem, improving cooperation, and reducing racial or ethnic stereotyping. In terms of academic achievement, it tends to improve the performance of minority-group children and either increases or has no effect on the performance of majority-group children. The correct answer is: reduces racial or ethnic stereotyping.

Question 34

The basic premise of the Zeigarnik effect is that: Select one: a. we tend to remember unfinished tasks better than finished ones. b. we tend to remember novel or unusual tasks better than familiar ones. c. we tend to remember difficult tasks better than easy ones. d. we tend to remember interesting tasks better than boring ones.

Answer 34

Zeigarnik used Lewin's field theory to explain the consequences of unresolved tension. Answer A is correct: Zeigarnik found that our memory tends to be better for uncompleted tasks than for completed ones when tasks are performed under nonstressful conditions, apparently because uncompleted tasks create "psychic tension." The correct answer is: we tend to remember unfinished tasks better than finished ones.

Question 35

When faced with an approach-avoidance conflict: Select one: a. the closer we get to the goal, the stronger our desire to approach it. b. the closer we get to the goal, the stronger our desire to avoid it. c. regardless of our proximity to the goal, the desire to approach the goal is equal to the desire to avoid it. d. the closer we get to the goal, the more similar the intensity of our desires to approach and avoid it.

Answer 35

Lewis and his colleagues identified four types of intraindividual conflict: approach-approach avoidance-avoidance approach-avoidance double approach-avoidance. Answer B is correct: One of the reasons why an approach-avoidance conflict is difficult to resolve is because, the closer we get to the goal, the stronger the avoidance motive and, conversely, the farther we get from the goal, the stronger the approach motive. This causes us to waiver during the decision-making process. The correct answer is: the closer we get to the goal, the stronger our desire to avoid it.

Question 36

With regard to the effects of crowding, which of the following is true? Select one: a. Men are less likely than women to be stressed by crowded situations. b. Men are more likely than women to act aggressively in crowded situations. c. Men and women are equally likely to react negatively in crowded situations. d. Men and women react aggressively in crowded situations to about the same degree but manifest their reactions in different ways.

Answer 36

Research has found that the impact of crowding is affected by several factors including gender. Answer B is correct: The studies have found that, in general, men are more stressed than women by crowded situations and are more likely to react aggressively and in other negative ways. The correct answer is: Men are more likely than women to act aggressively in crowded situations.

Question 37

The predictions of social exchange theory are most applicable to our relationships with: Select one: A. close friends. B. parents. C. romantic partners. D. business associates.

Answer 37

Even if you're unfamiliar with the predictions of social exchange theory, you may have been able to identify the correct answer to this question by noticing that one of the answers is unlike the others. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT The research suggests that social exchange theory does not apply to people we are very close to (e.g., close friends, parents, and romantic partners) but, instead, to individuals we have more formal relationships with or have recently met (e.g., business associates, acquaintances, and strangers). The correct answer is: business associates.

Question 38

Research on the intergroup contact hypothesis has demonstrated that antagonism between members of two groups is most likely to be reduced when: Select one: A. members of the two groups are initially provided with numerous opportunities for casual (superficial) contact. B. members of the two groups are provided with incentives for getting along while interacting. C. the leaders from each group meet to discuss the issues underlying the antagonism before group members interact. D. interactions between group members provide opportunities to disconfirm negative stereotypes.

Answer 38

The research has shown that, for interpersonal contact to reduce intergroup hostility, certain conditions must be met. a. Incorrect Casual contact may actually provide opportunities for continued expressions of hostility. b. Incorrect The research on the intergroup contact hypothesis has not found this to be an effective method for reducing intergroup hostility. c. Incorrect Having leaders meet to discuss the issues would likely be subsequently viewed by group members with suspicion, resulting in even more problems. d. CORRECT Of the answers given, this one is most consistent with the research. Intergroup contact is most likely to reduce hostility when it provides opportunities for learning that negative stereotypes about members of the opposing group are untrue. The correct answer is: interactions between group members provide opportunities to disconfirm negative stereotypes.

Question 39

In a research study, prison inmates and counselors working at the prison were asked to explain why the inmates had committed their crimes. In response, the inmates cited situational factors, while the counselors attributed the offenses to the dispositional characteristics of the inmates. Which of the following predicts the outcome of this study? Select one: A. fundamental attribution bias B. self-serving bias C. actor-observer effect D. false consensus effect

Answer 39

The answers to this question are all attribution biases or other cognitive biases that you'll want to be familiar with for the licensing exam. a. Incorrect The fundamental attribution bias is the tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors when making attributions about the behaviors of others. Since the fundamental attribution bias only explains the counselors' attributions about the crimes committed by the inmates, this answer is only partially correct and not the best answer of those given. b. Incorrect The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to make dispositional attributions for our successes but situational attributions for our failures. c. CORRECT The actor-observer effect addresses the discrepancy in an actor's and observer's attributions for the actor's behavior. It predicts that actors tend to attribute their own behaviors to situational factors, while observers tend to attribute the actors' behaviors to dispositional factors. d. Incorrect The false consensus effect is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us. The correct answer is: actor-observer effect

Question 40

Research by Herek (2000) and others on the attitudes of heterosexual men and women toward gays and lesbians has found that all of the following have been linked to higher levels of sexual prejudice EXCEPT: Select one: A. younger (versus older) age. B. high levels of authoritarianism. C. conservative political views. D. lower levels of education.

Answer 40

The research has been fairly consistent with regard to characteristics associated with high levels of sexual prejudice. a. CORRECT Older (not younger) age has been linked to higher levels of sexual prejudice. All of the characteristics listed in the other answers have been linked to higher levels of sexual prejudice among heterosexual men and women. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: younger (versus older) age.

Question 41

Self-verification theory predicts that a person with low self-esteem will prefer to receive evaluations from others that: Select one: A. confirm his/her own negative self-evaluations. B. refute his/her own negative self-evaluations. C. avoid addressing his/her self-evaluations. D. are clearly non-evaluative.

Answer 41

Swann, Pelham, and Krull's (1989) self-verification theory predicts that people prefer confirmation of their self-concept. a. CORRECT Self-verification theory predicts that a person with low self-esteem will prefer evaluations from others that confirm his/her own negative self-evaluations. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: confirm his/her own negative self-evaluations.

Question 42

Those with privilege may hold beliefs that they are superior to others or others are inferior to them, that they have the power to impose standards, and that their reality is the same experience for everyone. This sort of worldview is known as: Select one: A. Ethnocentric monoculturalism B. Prejudice C. Racism D. Discrimination

Answer 42

The correct answer is A. Ethnocentric monoculturalism is a worldview sometimes exhibited by those who hold privilege. Answers B, C, and D may also be exhibited by individuals in privileged groups, however, the views described in the question are better defined as ethnocentric monoculturalism. The correct answer is: Ethnocentric monoculturalism

Question 43

Lewin's (1936) field theory predicts that human behavior is a function of: Select one: A. the persons attitude, values, and beliefs. B. the persons actual and perceived abilities. C. the characteristics of the person and the persons environment. D. the antecedents and consequences of the behavior.

Answer 43

Lewin's (1936) field theory is expressed by the following formula: B = f(P,E), where B is behavior, P is person, and E is environment. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Lewin described behavior as a function of interactions between the person's characteristics (e.g., heredity, personality, health) and the characteristics of the person's social environment. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: the characteristics of the person and the persons environment.

Question 44

In a research study, a social psychologist offers participants either $1.00 or $20.00 to tell potential participants that a dull experiment was very interesting. With regard to cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory, which of the following is true? Select one: A. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment, while self-perception theory predicts that participants in the $20.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment. B. Self-perception theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment, while cognitive dissonance theory predicts that participants in the $20.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment. C. Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory both predict that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment than will those in the $20.00 condition. D. Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory both predict that participants in the $20.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment than will those in the $1.00 condition.

Answer 44

Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory make the same prediction about the outcome of the study described in this question but do so for different reasons. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will report liking the dull experiment more than will those in the $20.00 condition in order to reduce the dissonance they feel about describing the dull study as interesting to potential participants. In contrast, self-perception theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will report greater liking for the dull experiment because they will evaluate their actual opinion of the study by looking at their overt behavior (telling others that the experiment was interesting). d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory both predict that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment than will those in the $20.00 condition.

Question 45

In Zimbardo's (1972) prison study, students were randomly assigned to enact the role of either a prisoner or prison guard and were placed in an environment that simulated an actual prison. Results of the study indicated that: Select one: A. introverted prisoners and extroverted prison guards more easily adapted to their roles than did extroverted prisoners and introverted prison guards. B. prisoners and prison guards more easily adapted to their roles when they were paid for participating in the study than when they were not paid. C. prisoners and prison guards both quickly adapted to their assigned roles to such an extreme that the study had to be terminated early. D. prisoners and prison guards actively resisted their assigned roles and often deliberately engaged in role reversal.

Answer 45

Zimbardo's (1972) prison study confirmed that people often alter their behaviors so that they are consistent with assigned roles. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Within the first six days of Zimbardo's prison simulation study, students assigned the role of guard became very aggressive and authoritarian (e.g., they issued arbitrary commands to prisoners to do push-ups and refused requests to go to the bathroom), while those assigned the role of prisoner quickly lapsed into depression and helplessness and began exhibiting signs of both physical and emotional distress. Because of the rapid decay of the behavior of both prison guards and prisoners, the study was halted prematurely. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: prisoners and prison guards both quickly adapted to their assigned roles to such an extreme that the study had to be terminated early.

Question 46

A co-worker says, "It never fails. Every time I plan to go hiking with my children, it rains." Assuming that your co-worker's claim is not really true, her statement is best described as a manifestation of which of the following? Select one: A. false consensus bias B. hedonic relevance C. base rate fallacy D. illusory correlation

Answer 46

In this situation, your co-worker is overestimating the relationship between two events (hiking and raining). a. Incorrect The false consensus bias is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us. b. Incorrect Hedonic relevance is a potential source of bias when making attributions about the behavior of another person and refers to the extent to which the other person's behavior has positive or negative consequences for us. c. Incorrect The base rate fallacy refers to the tendency to consider statistical probability rates as false and, as a result, to rely on irrelevant information rather than statistical information when making a judgment. d. CORRECT The tendency to overestimate a relationship between two variables is referred to as illusory correlation. Illusory correlation is most likely to occur when the two events or other variables are distinctive (e.g., occur relatively infrequently). The correct answer is: illusory correlation

Question 47

According to Herek (1991), harassment of and violence against lesbians and gay men is the result of: Select one: A. an antisocial predisposition. B. extreme authoritarianism. C. homophobia. D. heterosexism.

Answer 47

Herek (1991) describes the harassment of and violence against lesbians and gay men as an extension of the heterosexism that pervades society. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Herek (1991) defines heterosexism as "an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes among non-heterosexual forms of behavior, identity, relationships, or community" (p. 150). His research has linked a combination of individual (psychological) and cultural heterosexism to violence against lesbians and gay men. The correct answer is: heterosexism.

Question 48

Research on persuasion has found that people who argue against their own self-interest are: Select one: A. usually viewed by listeners as untrustworthy. B. usually viewed by listeners as credible. C. viewed as reliable by uninformed listeners only. D. viewed as knowledgeable by listeners who have low-esteem.

Answer 48

The studies have found that a communicator's credibility is affected by a number of factors including his/her apparent motives for advocating a particular position. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Walster, Aronson, and Abrahams (1966) found that communicators are usually considered credible by listeners when they are arguing against their own self-interest, apparently because they are perceived as more trustworthy when doing so. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: usually viewed by listeners as credible.

Question 49

During a family therapy session, the therapist tells the 8-year old son that he should keep annoying his sister, even though it makes her very mad. The boy says, "I don't have to if I don't want to." The boy's response to the therapist's request is best described as a manifestation of which of the following? Select one: A. paradox B. double-bind C. source derogation D. psychological reactance

Answer 49

Note that this question is asking about the boy's behavior, not the therapist's. a. Incorrect The therapist is using paradox, but this question is asking about the boy's behavior. b. Incorrect Double-bind communication presents a "mixed message" (e.g., contradictory verbal and nonverbal messages) and is not relevant to the situation described in this question. c. Incorrect Source derogation refers to defending oneself against persuasion by criticizing the source of the message. d. CORRECT Psychological reactance occurs when we do the opposite of what is requested or desired by another person because we feel our freedom-of-choice is being restricted. In family therapy, paradox is sometimes used to elicit resistance (psychological reactance) in order to promote change. The correct answer is: psychological reactance

Question 50

In a research study on bystander intervention, a participant hears someone (a confederate) fall and cry out in pain in an adjacent room. In this situation, the participant is most likely to respond to this apparent need for help when the participant is: Select one: A. alone. B. with a friend. C. with a stranger. D. with three or more other participants.

Answer 50

Studies on bystander intervention have found that a person in need is most likely to receive help when there is only one bystander. a. CORRECT Research has shown that a bystander is more likely to intervene when alone than when in the presence of others, regardless of whether the others are strangers or friends. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect The greater the number of bystanders, the greater the bystander apathy (i.e., the less likely a person will receive assistance). The correct answer is: alone.

Question 51

_____________ predicts that our perceptions of fairness in a relationship are more important than the absolute costs and rewards of being in that relationship. Select one: A. Social comparison theory B. Social judgment theory C. Equity theory D. Self-verification theory

Answer 51

Of the theories listed in the answers, only one explicitly addresses the costs and rewards of a relationship. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT According to equity theory, people consider a relationship equitable when they believe their reward/cost ratio is proportional to the reward/cost ratio of the other person. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: Equity theory

Question 52

A father is quite upset about his 11-year old son's recent unwillingness to do as he is told, and he tells his son, "I'm the boss around here and you must do as I say." The father is relying on which type of social power to control his son's behavior? Select one: A. expert B. referent C. legitimate D. coercive

Answer 52

French and Raven (1959) distinguished between six types of social power - COERCIVE, REWARD, EXPERT, REFERENT, INFORMATIONAL, and LEGITIMATE. Additional information about them is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect When using expert power, an individual emphasizes his/her superior knowledge or expertise. The father would be using expert power if he had said, "You'll do what I say because I know what's best for you." b. Incorrect Referent power refers to the ability of an individual or group to control the behavior of others because of their desire to identify with that individual or group. The father would be relying on referent power if he said "You should do what I say because you're part of this family." c. CORRECT When using legitimate power, the individual emphasizes his/her position of power or authority and the other person's obligation to comply. In this situation, the father is relying on his position as "boss" to control his son's behavior. d. Incorrect Coercive power is being used when an individual influences the behavior of others through the control of punishments. The father would be using coercive power if he said, "If you don't do what I say, you'll have to stay in your room all weekend." The correct answer is: legitimate

Question 53

Cognitive dissonance theory is most useful for understanding: Select one: A. interpersonal attraction. B. minority influence. C. self attributions. D. attitude change.

Answer 53

According to cognitive dissonance theory, inconsistencies in cognitions produce tension (dissonance), which motivates the individual to modify one of his/her cognitions. Additional information about cognitive dissonance theory is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Cognitive dissonance theory is useful for understanding the circumstances in which a person changes his/her attitudes or beliefs - i.e., it predicts that attitude change is, in some cases, an attempt to alleviate dissonance. The correct answer is: attitude change.

Question 54

A movie viewer is most likely to report feeling uncomfortable in a crowded movie theater when he/she is viewing a ________ film. Select one: A. frightening horror B. sexually arousing C. humorous D. boring

Answer 54

The consequences of crowding depend on several factors including the nature of the environment and task. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Research by Worchel and Brown (1984) found that crowding is experienced as less uncomfortable or stressful in attention-grabbing, arousing situations than in uninteresting situations. They conclude that this difference is due to the fact that crowding produces arousal and, when the arousal can be attributed to the circumstances, it is not experienced as unpleasant. However, when the arousal cannot be attributed to the circumstances (e.g., when the movie is boring), it is experienced as unpleasant. The correct answer is: boring

Question 55

Which of the following strategies would probably be least effective for reducing aggressiveness in children? Select one: A. exposure to a nonaggressive model B. opportunities for catharsis C. social skills training D. a threat of retaliation from a high-status person

Answer 55

Note that this question is asking for the most ineffective method for reducing aggression. a. Incorrect The research has shown that exposure to models can increase both positive and negative behaviors. b. CORRECT Catharsis has not been found to be an effective way to reduce aggressive behavior. In fact, there is evidence that it may actually increase aggression. c. Incorrect In many cases, aggressiveness is due to a lack of alternative behaviors. Consequently, social skills training is often effective because its goal is to replace undesirable behaviors (e.g., aggression) with more desirable ones. d. Incorrect The research has shown that a threat of retaliation reduces aggression, at least in certain circumstances (e.g., when the threat comes from a person with high status or power and is not accompanied by provocation). The correct answer is: opportunities for catharsis

Question 56

In his book, The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon Allport concludes that: Select one: A. stateways cannot change folkways. B. stateways can only intensify existing folkways. C. stateways are often in advance of folkways. D. folkways always precede stateways.

Answer 56

Answer C is correct. In contrast to the traditional view that "stateways cannot change folkways" (e.g., you cannot legislate against racial prejudice), Allport asserts that, at least in the United States, stateways are often in advance of folkways. Allport proposes that, while laws do not prevent violations altogether, they do act as a restraint and can, therefore, break the vicious cycle of racial prejudice and discrimination. In other words, by terminating the overt signs of prejudice through legislation, the open expression of prejudice is discouraged and, eventually, thoughts and attitudes "fall into line." The correct answer is: stateways are often in advance of folkways.

Question 57

Aronson and Linder's (1965) gain-loss theory predicts that we will like a person most when his/her evaluations of us are: Select one: A. initially positive and remain positive. B. initially negative but become positive. C. initially positive but become negative. D. initially and subsequently neutral.

Answer 57

Gain-loss theory (Aronson and Linder, 1965) is a theory of personal attraction. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Gain-loss theory predicts that an evaluation sequence involving a change from a negative to a positive evaluation will result in greater liking for the evaluator than will a consistent positive evaluation sequence and, conversely, that an evaluation sequence involving a change from a positive to a negative evaluation will result in greater dislike for the evaluator than will a consistent negative evaluation sequence. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: initially negative but become positive.

Question 58

Moscovici (1985) found that individuals with a minority opinion are most likely to change the minds of those holding the majority opinion when those with the minority opinion: Select one: A. express their opinion as consistently as possible. B. use ingratiation techniques to gain the acceptance of members of the majority. C. initially agree with the majority position and gradually introduce their own opinion. D. point out the ways in which they agree with the majority.

Answer 58

Moscovici (1985) was interested in the factors that increase the likelihood that a minority can sway the opinion of the majority. a. CORRECT Moscovici found consistency to be the key factor in determining whether a minority would successfully change the opinion of the majority. b. Incorrect This was not found by Moscovici to be an effective way for a minority to alter the opinion of the majority. c. Incorrect Maintaining a consistent position is more effective than is initially agreeing with the majority. d. Incorrect This has not been found to be an effective way for a minority to alter the opinion of the majority. The correct answer is: express their opinion as consistently as possible.

Question 59

Heider's (1958) balance theory describes attitude change as a function of which of the following? Select one: A. categories of judgment B. fear arousal C. cognitive consistency D. behavioral intentions

Answer 59

Balance theory focuses on the relationships between three entities (the person, another person, and a third person, object, or event) and proposes that the relations between these entities may be balanced or unbalanced. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT According to balance theory, when the relationships between the entities are unbalanced, the person experiences a state of disequilibrium (inconsistency) and is motivated to change his/her attitude toward one of the entities. See the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials for additional information on balance theory. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: cognitive consistency

Question 60

Which of the following has been used to explain the phenomenon known as the Zeigarnik effect? Select one: A. bystander apathy B. intergroup cooperation C. deindividuation D. psychic tension

Answer 60

The Zeigarnik effect refers to the tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Zeigarnik was a student of Lewin and proposed that it is easier to recall uncompleted tasks (at least in some conditions) because they create a state of "psychic tension." The correct answer is: psychic tension

Question 61

Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior predicts that attitudes are good predictors of a person's behavior when the measure of attitudes assesses the person's: Select one: A. intrinsic motivation. B. ego involvement. C. behavioral intention. D. past behavior.

Answer 61

The name of Ajzen's theory -- i.e., the theory of planned behavior -- may have helped you identify the correct response even if you're not familiar with its assumptions. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT The theory of planned behavior predicts that the accuracy of a measure of a person's attitude is increased when the measure assesses the three factors that determine the person's behavioral intention -- i.e., the person's attitude toward engaging in the behavior, what the person believes other people think about the behavior, and the person's perceived behavioral control. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: behavioral intention.

Question 62

A therapy client is exhibiting a depressive attributional style when she consistently attributes the negative events she experiences to: Select one: A. internal, stable, and global factors. B. external, stable, and global factors. C. internal, unstable, and specific factors. D. external, unstable, and specific factors.

Answer 62

Researchers interested in causal attribution distinguish between three attributional dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific. a. CORRECT Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale (1978) found that people who are depressed often exhibit signs of learned helplessness. In other words, they tend to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: internal, stable, and global factors.

Question 63

The elaboration likelihood model predicts that the recipient of a persuasive message is more likely to use the peripheral route of information processing when: Select one: A. the person delivering the message is a well-liked and trusted celebrity. B. the recipient is in a neutral or slightly negative mood. C. the message is considered important or personally relevant by the recipient. D. the recipient has a high need for cognition.

Answer 63

The elaboration likelihood model (Petty and Cacioppo, 1980) distinguishes between central and peripheral processing routes. The central route involves active, effortful cognitive processing (cognitive elaboration), while the peripheral route involves reliance on simple decision-making rules. a. CORRECT A listener is more likely to use the peripheral route (i.e., rely on peripheral cues) when the person delivering the message is attractive or well-liked, b. Incorrect A recipient who is in a neutral or slightly negative mood is more likely to use the central route for processing a communication. c. Incorrect A person is more likely to use the central route when the message is important or personally relevant. d. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. People with a high need for cognition (i.e., those who usually think carefully about issues) are more likely to rely on the central route. The correct answer is: the person delivering the message is a well-liked and trusted celebrity.

Question 64

According to Kelman (1961), the possible responses to social influence are: Select one: A. compliance, identification, internalization B. conformity, compliance, obedience C. compliance, conformity, internalization D. rejection, concession, compliance

Answer 64

As noted in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials, Kelman (1961) distinguished between three types of responses to social influence. a. CORRECT These are the three responses identified by Kelman. b. Incorrect See explanation above. c. Incorrect See explanation above. d. Incorrect See explanation above. The correct answer is: compliance, identification, internalization

Question 65

Research on __________ has found that people tend to pay more attention to information that confirms their beliefs about themselves than to information that contradicts those beliefs. Select one: A. propositions B. heuristics C. schemas D. metamemory

Answer 65

Researchers interested in how people interpret their experiences distinguish between several phenomena including schemas, prototypes, and scripts. a. Incorrect Researchers interested in declarative knowledge define propositions as simple ideas that are either true or false. b. Incorrect Heuristics are "mental shortcuts" that help us process complex information. c. CORRECT Schemas (schemata) are organized mental networks of information that are based on prior experience or knowledge and that influence our interpretation of or reaction to current experience. Research on schemas has found that people tend to pay attention to and recall schema-consistent information better than information that is inconsistent with their current schemas. For example, a person who considers herself to be a very independent person will be able to recall many examples of her independence but few, if any, examples of times when she acted in dependent ways. d. Incorrect Metamemory refers to awareness of one's own memory processes. The correct answer is: schemas

Question 66

Participants in a research study are injected with epinephrine which produces mild arousal. One-half of the participants are told to expect arousal while the other half are told that the injection will have no physiological side effects. Each participant is then placed in a waiting room with a confederate who has been instructed to act in an angry manner. Subsequently, participants who were told to expect arousal from the epinephrine report no change in their emotional state, while those who were told to expect no side effects report feeling angry. Results of this study provide evidence for which of the following? Select one: A. attribution theory B. dissonance theory C. self-serving bias D. self-perception theory

Answer 66

In the study described in this question, participants in one group have an explanation for their arousal (the epinephrine), while participants in the other group do not. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Results of the study are consistent with self-perception theory, which predicts that, in ambiguous situations, a person's self-attributions are based on observations of cues in the external environment (e.g., the behavior of others). The correct answer is: self-perception theory

Question 67

According to Hays (2001), would a 25-year-old individual be considered privileged? Select one: A. Yes, their age affords them rights that other age groups do not receive B. No, the age group that is privileged is between 30-60 years C. No, age is not included in the groups Hays identified D. Yes, 25-year-olds are more able-bodied than older individuals

Answer 67

The correct answer is B. According to Hays, regarding age and generational influences, individuals between the ages of 30 and 60 hold privilege, so answers A, C, and D are incorrect. Regarding answer D, Hays did identify individuals without disabilities as holding privilege, however the question focuses on the individuals age, not level of ability. The correct answer is: No, the age group that is privileged is between 30-60 years

Question 68

Research on prejudice indicates that certain conditions can reduce intergroup hostilities. Which of the following conditions would be MOST effective for reducing racial prejudice displayed by groups of White and African American children? Select one: A. the children are required to cooperate in order to achieve a common goal B. the children are confronted with a "common enemy" C. contact between the children occurs daily over an extended period of time D. the children are provided with norms that prescribe courtesy and friendliness

Answer 68

Research on intergroup hostility has contributed greatly to the understanding of the variables that contribute to prejudice. One of the most consistent findings is that intergroup hostilities (e.g., prejudice) can be reduced by having groups work on a common goal (Cook, 1978; Sherif, 1966). a. CORRECT When children are required to cooperate in order to achieve a common ("superordinate") goal, prejudice is likely to decrease. b. Incorrect Sherif (1966), for example, found that the introduction of a common enemy merely widened the scope of conflict. c. Incorrect Research has generally not supported the notion that increased contact alone is sufficient to reduce prejudice. In fact, Sherif (1966) found that increased contact under pleasant circumstances only provided more opportunities for the expression of hostility. d. Incorrect Research has not supported the notion that prejudice can be reduced simply if children are provided with norms that prescribe courtesy and friendliness. The correct answer is: the children are required to cooperate in order to achieve a common goal

Question 69

Sherif (1935) used which of the following to investigate conformity to group norms? Select one: A. visual cliff B. jigsaw classroom C. door-in-the-face technique D. autokinetic effect

Answer 69

Sherif's (1935) study is a classic in social psychology, and you'll want to be familiar with it for the licensing exam. Additional information about the study is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT The autokinetic effect is a perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of light appears to move in a darkened room. Sherif found that, in certain circumstances, research participants conformed to the judgments of confederates regarding how far the light had moved (even though the light was actually stationary). The correct answer is: autokinetic effect

Question 70

As a supervisor, Jason J. always tries to modify his communication and managerial style so that they "match" the style and characteristics of the particular employee he is interacting with. Based on this information, you can conclude that Jason: Select one: A. is high in self-monitoring. B. is high in initiating structure. C. has low self-efficacy beliefs. D. has an internal locus of control.

Answer 70

The individual described in this question is adjusting his behavior to fit the behavior of each employee that he supervises. a. CORRECT High self-monitors are concerned about the impression they make and, as a result, pay close attention to the behaviors of other people so that they can adjust their own behavior to fit the expectations, style, and other characteristics of those people. b. Incorrect Initiating structure refers to the degree to which a leader is goal (task) oriented and is not relevant to the situation described in this question. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: is high in self-monitoring.

Question 71

The belief that watching someone else act aggressively will serve to reduce one's own aggressiveness is most consistent with the notion of: Select one: A. inoculation. B. vicarious reinforcement. C. catharsis. D. vicarious desensitization.

Answer 71

A number of approaches have been proposed as means for reducing aggressive behavior. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Catharsis involves the release of emotion, and some experts believe that one way to reduce aggression, anger, and hostility is through catharsis. Note, however, that the research has not been very supportive of this proposal. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: catharsis.

Question 72

The tendency to take credit for our successes but to blame other people or external circumstances for our failures is referred as the: Select one: A. fundamental attribution bias. B. confirmation bias. C. self-serving bias. D. optimism bias.

Answer 72

The answers to this question are all biases that affect our attributions or other aspect of our cognitive processing. a. Incorrect The fundamental attribution bias is the tendency to attribute another person's behavior to dispositional factors. b. Incorrect The confirmation bias involves focusing on and seeking out information that confirms our preconceptions. c. CORRECT The self-serving bias applies to the attributions we make for our own behaviors. It refers to the tendency to take credit for our successes (i.e., make dispositional attributions) but to blame the circumstances or other people for our failures (i.e., make situational attributions). d. Incorrect As its name suggests, the optimism bias refers to a tendency to be overly optimistic about the outcomes of our behaviors. The correct answer is: self-serving bias.

Question 73

According to Baumeister, Catanese, and Wallace (2002), a man may feel that his personal freedom is being restricted when a woman refuses his sexual advances and, as a result, become aggressive toward the woman. In other words, Baumeister and his colleagues suggest that, in some circumstances, sexual aggression toward women by men may be attributable to which of the following? Select one: A. sublimation B. psychological reactance C. coercive power D. behavioral catharsis

Answer 73

This question is referring to a study conducted by R. F. Baumeister, K. R. Catanese, and H. M. Wallace on the causes of sexual coercion (Conquest by force: A narcissistic reactance theory of rape and sexual coercion, Review of General Psychology, 2002, 6, 92-135). However, you may have been able to identify the correct answer even if you're not familiar with this study as long as you're familiar with the concept being asked about. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT The phrase "feel that his personal freedom is being restricted" should have helped you identify the correct response to this question. Psychological reactance occurs when a person acts in a way that is opposite of what is being requested because the person feels that his/her freedom-of-choice is being restricted. Based on their research, Baumeister and his colleagues conclude that the attempts of sexually coercive men to force women to engage in sexual behavior is the result of a combination of reactance and narcissism. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: psychological reactance

Question 74

The jigsaw technique is a(n): Select one: A. individual decision-making strategy. B. cooperative learning strategy. C. method for reducing susceptibility to persuasion. D. method for decreasing conformity to group norms.

Answer 74

The jigsaw method was first used by Aronson and colleagues (1978). a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT The jigsaw classroom was developed by Aronson and his colleagues as a method for enhancing learning and motivation and reducing racial/ethnic conflict in classrooms. Additional information about the jigsaw classroom is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: cooperative learning strategy.

Question 75

Berkowitz (1971) revised the original frustration-aggression hypothesis by proposing that frustration leads to aggression only when: Select one: A. the aggressor anticipates positive consequences for acting aggressively. B. there are aggressive cues in the environment. C. the recipient of the aggression has low status. D. the recipient of the aggression provoked the aggressor.

Answer 75

The original frustration-aggression hypothesis proposed by Dollard et al. (1939) was subsequently modified by several researchers including Berkowitz. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Berkowitz's (1971) research found that frustration leads to a "readiness for aggression" but that the actual expression of aggression requires anger arousal plus the presence of appropriate environmental (aggressive) cues. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: there are aggressive cues in the environment.

Question 76

In a research study, boys observe a model act aggressively toward an inflatable "Bobo" doll. For some boys, the model is rewarded for acting aggressively; for others, the model is punished; and, for others, the model is neither rewarded nor punished. Subsequently, all boys are offered incentives for acting aggressively toward the doll. Based on your knowledge of Bandura's (1983) research on social learning theory, you predict that: Select one: A. only boys who observed the model being rewarded will act aggressively toward the doll. B. only boys who observed the model being rewarded or receiving no consequence will act aggressively toward the doll. C. only boys who observed the model being punished will act aggressively toward the doll. D. all boys (those who saw the model rewarded, punished, or receiving no consequence) will act aggressively toward the doll.

Answer 76

The results of Bandura's study confirmed that learning and performance are distinct - i.e., all boys learned the aggressive behavior by observing the model regardless of whether the model received a reward, punishment, or no consequence for acting aggressively. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Bandura found that, when no incentive was offered to the boys for imitating the model's behavior, only those in the reward or no consequence condition did so. However, when boys were offered an incentive for imitating the model, all boys acted aggressively toward the Bobo doll. The correct answer is: all boys (those who saw the model rewarded, punished, or receiving no consequence) will act aggressively toward the doll.

Question 77

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion predicts that: Select one: A. central route processing produces attitude change that is more persistent over time than does peripheral route processing. B. in terms of short-term effects, central route processing produces a greater amount of attitude change than does peripheral route processing. C. central route processing relies more on environmental cues than does peripheral route processing. D. central route processing produces positive attitude change while peripheral route processing is more likely to produce negative attitude change.

Answer 77

Petty and Cacioppo's (1980) elaboration likelihood model distinguishes between central and peripheral processing routes. The two routes differ in terms of the amount of effortful cognitive processing (elaboration) they require and their impact on attitude change. a. CORRECT The model predicts (and the research has confirmed) that attitude change resulting from central (versus peripheral) route processing results in more persistent attitude change as well as attitudes that are more predictive of behavior. b. Incorrect In terms of immediate (short-term) effects, the two routes can produce the same amount of attitude change. c. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. It is peripheral processing that relies on environmental (peripheral) cues - for example, the length of the message or the attractiveness of the person delivering the message. d. Incorrect Both routes can produce either positive or negative (favorable or unfavorable) attitude change. The correct answer is: central route processing produces attitude change that is more persistent over time than does peripheral route processing.

Question 78

_____________ refers to publicly acting in ways that are consistent with what is requested by another person in order to obtain a reward or avoid punishment while privately disagreeing with the request. Select one: A. Identification B. Internalization C. Commitment D. Compliance

Answer 78

Research has found that social influence can have one of three effects on an individual's opinions and behavior - compliance, identification, and internalization. a. Incorrect Identification occurs when a person changes his/her opinion or behavior in response to a request because he/she wants to be liked by or identified with the person making the request. b. Incorrect Internalization occurs when the person changes his/her opinion or behavior because the person actually (privately) accepts the beliefs or opinions of another person. c. Incorrect Commitment is not one of the terms that is usually used to describe responses to persuasion but, in terms of its general meaning, is most similar to internalization. d. CORRECT Compliance occurs when a person publicly changes his/her opinion to obtain a reward or avoid punishment but does not actually (privately) accept that opinion. The correct answer is: Compliance

Question 79

When a listener is exposed to both sides of an argument, a primacy effect is most likely to occur when: Select one: A. the first side of the argument is presented immediately before the second side and the listeners attitude is measured immediately after presentation of the second argument. B. the first side of the argument is presented immediately before the second side and the listeners attitude is measured at a later time. C. there is a delay between presentation of the first and second sides of the argument and the listeners attitude is measured immediately after presentation of the second argument. D. there is a delay between presentation of the first and second sides of the argument and the listeners attitude is measured at a later time.

Answer 79

The research has found that the order of presentation of two sides of an argument and the time at which a listener's attitude is measured determine whether a primacy or recency effect will occur. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT When both sides of an argument are presented, a PRIMACY EFFECT occurs (the listener is swayed more by the first argument) when the second argument immediately follows the first and the attitude measure is administered at a later time. In contrast, a RECENCY EFFECT occurs (the listener is swayed more by the second argument) when there is a delay between presentation of the two sides of the argument and the attitude measure is administered immediately after the second argument. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: the first side of the argument is presented immediately before the second side and the listeners attitude is measured at a later time.

Question 80

Stanley Milgram investigated which of the following at Yale University in the 1960s? Select one: A. the willingness of individuals to conform to group norms even when those norms were obviously incorrect B. the willingness of individuals to obey an authority even when doing so had harmful consequences for someone else C. the ability of individuals holding a minority opinion to influence the opinion of the majority D. the ability of exposure to repeated conflict among groups to generate hostility and aggression toward members of the outgroup

Answer 80

Milgram's research at Yale University is among the most well-known and conroversial research in the field of social psychology. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Milgram's research found that, under certain conditions, people are willing to comply with the requests of an authority, even when doing seems to have negative consequences for another person. b. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: the willingness of individuals to obey an authority even when doing so had harmful consequences for someone else

Question 81

According to social comparison theory: Select one: A. we feel better when people like and appreciate us. B. we often judge our own actions by looking at those of other people. C. we tend to imitate other people who we perceive to be most like us. D. we are most attracted to people who compare favorably with us.

Answer 81

Even if you're unfamiliar with social comparison theory, you may have been able to identify the correct answer to this question since its name describes what it predicts. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Social comparison theory "sounds like" what it is: It predicts that people make judgments about themselves by comparing their behaviors and beliefs to those of other people. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: we often judge our own actions by looking at those of other people.

Question 82

Research has found that which of the following is most important for reducing the negative effects of crowding on behavior? Select one: A. diffusion of responsibility B. level of self-monitoring C. a sense of control D. behavioral incentives

Answer 82

The impact of crowding has been linked to a number of individual and environmental characteristics. Of the phenomena listed in the answers, however, only one has been identified as a key determinant of the impact of crowding on behavior. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT The research has found that a sense of control over the situation mediates the impact of crowding on behavior. For example, Sherrod (1974) found that, when people working on a task in a crowded situation could press an "escape button" in order to leave the situation, their performance was enhanced even though they never actually pressed the button. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: a sense of control

Question 83

Asch (1946) found that some characteristics (e.g., warm and cold) influence the impressions people form of others more than other characteristics do, and he referred to these influential characteristics as: Select one: A. stable attributes. B. central traits. C. schemata. D. stereotypes.

Answer 83

Solomon Asch (1946) was among the first to conduct research on impression formation. The results of his studies confirmed that some characteristics have a greater impact on impression formation than others do. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT When Asch presented participants in his studies with a list of adjectives that supposedly described another person, he found that certain traits were the most important determinants of the participants' impressions of that person. Asch concluded that these CENTRAL (influential) TRAITS are characteristics that are highly associated with other characteristics and, as a result, have a strong impact on impression formation. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: central traits.

Question 84

Research on consumer behavior has found that providing a bonus to customers for purchasing a product increases the sales of that product. However, if the bonus is subsequently discontinued, product loyalty declines substantially. This phenomenon is predicted by which of the following? Select one: A. availability heuristic B. dilution effect C. psychological reactance D. overjustification hypothesis

Answer 84

In the situation described in this question, removal of an external reinforcement produces a decrease in the target behavior. a. Incorrect The availability heuristic refers to the tendency to judge the frequency of an event based on how easy it is to think of examples of that event. b. Incorrect The dilution effect refers to the weakening of an inference about someone due to the presence of irrelevant information about him/her. c. Incorrect Reactance occurs when a person does not comply with a request because he/she feels that the request violates his/her sense of personal freedom. d. CORRECT The overjustification hypothesis predicts that a person's internal motivation to perform a behavior will be weakened when he/she is provided with external reinforcement for engaging in the behavior.

Question 85

When Rosenhan's (1973) pseudopatients were admitted to a mental health facility after reporting that they were "hearing voices," they were: Select one: A. recognized as being sane by most staff members but not by the other patients. B. recognized as being sane by the other patients more often than by the staff members. C. not recognized as being sane by the staff members or patients until they stopped faking their symptoms. D. not recognized as being sane by the staff members or patients even after they stopped faking their symptoms.

Answer 85

Rosenhan and seven of his assistants had themselves admitted to different mental health facilities by complaining of "hearing voices." Once they were admitted, they stopped faking their symptoms. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Nearly 1/3 of the patients identified the pseudopatients as sane, but the hospital staff members diagnosed all but one of the pseudopatients as schizophrenic. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: recognized as being sane by the other patients more often than by the staff members.

Question 86

The base rate fallacy refers to the tendency to: Select one: A. believe that a particular chance event is affected by the occurrence of previous events. B. overestimate the link between two events that are unrelated or only slightly related. C. focus on a specific case rather than general information when reaching a conclusion or making a judgment. D. overestimate the number of people who share one's beliefs, opinions, and attitudes.

Answer 86

As its name implies, the base rate fallacy occurs when a person ignores base rate information. a. Incorrect This answer describes the gambler's fallacy. b. Incorrect This describes the phenomenon known as the illusory correlation. c. CORRECT The tendency to ignore base rate (general) information and to focus, instead, on a specific case is referred to as the base rate fallacy. d. Incorrect This answer describes the false consensus bias. The correct answer is: focus on a specific case rather than general information when reaching a conclusion or making a judgment.

Question 87

You are convinced that you are psychic because you're able to predict when close friends are going to call you on the phone. As a result, you always notice the times when your predictions are correct but ignore those times when they're not. This is an example of which of the following? Select one: A. correspondence bias B. confirmation bias C. self-fulfilling prophecy effect D. post hoc fallacy

Answer 87

In the situation described in this question, you are noticing only those phone calls that confirm your belief about your psychic ability. a. Incorrect The correspondence bias is another name for the fundamental attribution bias, which is the tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to dispositional factors. b. CORRECT This situation illustrates the confirmation bias, which predicts that we're most likely to pay attention to events that confirm our preconceptions. c. Incorrect The self-fulfilling prophecy effect occurs when a person's expectations alter the behaviors of the targets of those expectations. d. Incorrect The post hoc fallacy occurs when we conclude that Event A caused Event B simply because Event A preceded Event B. The correct answer is: confirmation bias

Question 88

Which of the following emphasizes the role of the costs and rewards of a relationship on a person's decision to stay in the relationship? Select one: A. gain-loss theory B. expectancy theory C. social exchange theory D. social comparison theory

Answer 88

For the licensing exam, you'll want to be familiar with all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question. a. Incorrect Gain-loss theory (also known as the gain-loss effect) refers to the tendency to like or be most attracted to people who initially evaluate us negatively but subsequently evaluate us in positive ways. b. Incorrect Expectancy theory predicts that motivation is the result of three beliefs - expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. c. CORRECT As its name implies, social exchange theory is based on the premise that human behavior is affected by the exchange of rewards between actors. Specifically, it predicts that the decision to stay in a relationship depends on the balance of costs and rewards: When a person believes that costs exceed rewards, the person will leave the relationship, but when the person believes that rewards exceed the costs, he/she will stay in the relationship. d. Incorrect Social comparison theory predicts that people make judgments about themselves by comparing their behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to those of other people. The correct answer is: social exchange theory

Question 89

The results of research on the jigsaw classroom are consistent with which of the following? Select one: A. the results of Sherif's Robber's Cave study B. the results of Zimbardo's deindividuation study C. the predictions of Berkowitz's frustration-aggression hypothesis D. the predictions of Ajzen and Fishbein's theory of reasoned action

Answer 89

In a jigsaw classroom, students work together in teams to complete an assignment (i.e., to achieve a superordinate goal). The research has found that the jigsaw classroom helps reduce hostilities related to racial, ethnic, or cultural differences. a. CORRECT Sherif found that cooperation in achieving a superordinate goal reduced hostility between groups of boys. b. Incorrect Zimbardo's deindividuation study found that people are more willing to act in antisocial ways when they can do so anonymously. c. Incorrect Berkowitz found that frustration may lead to aggression, especially in the presence of aggressive cues. d. Incorrect According to the theory of reasoned action, people consider two factors when deciding whether to behave in certain ways: their attitude toward the behavior and the subjective norms that apply to the situation. The correct answer is: the results of Sherif's Robber's Cave study

Question 90

According to Sherif and Hovland's (1961) social judgment theory, a person's latitudes of rejection, non-commitment, and acceptance are affected by which of the following? Select one: A. the persons level of involvement with the topic addressed by the persuasive message B. the persons perceptions about the consequences of altering his/her opinion or behavior C. the persons self-efficacy beliefs D. the persons level of cognitive dissonance

Answer 90

Social judgment theory (Sherif and Hovland, 1961) distinguishes between three "categories of judgment" that determine our susceptibility to persuasion - the latitude of acceptance, the latitude of non-commitment, and the latitude of rejection. Additional information on social judgment theory is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. CORRECT Social judgment theory predicts that the size of the latitudes of acceptance, non-commitment, and rejection are affected by the individual's level of ego-involvement (i.e., the extent to which the person is personally involved with the topic addressed by the persuasive message). When the individual's ego-involvement is high, his/her latitude of rejection is wide. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: the persons level of involvement with the topic addressed by the persuasive message

Question 91

In general, a communicator of a persuasive message will produce the greatest amount of attitude change in a listener when the communicator is _____ in credibility and the discrepancy between the listener's initial position and the position advocated by the communicator is _____. Select one: A. high; moderate B. high; small C. low; large D. low; moderate

Answer 91

The ability of a communicator to change a listener's attitude depends on several factors including the communicator's credibility and the amount of discrepancy between the listener's initial attitude and the attitude advocated by the communicator. a. CORRECT The optimal combination of communicator credibility and communication discrepancy for attitude change is a highly credible communicator and a moderate level of discrepancy. With regard to the discrepancy, a small discrepancy will not require much change in attitude on the part of the listener, while a large discrepancy is likely to produce no change. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: high; moderate

Question 92

According to Berscheid's (1991) emotion-in-relationships model, strong emotions in romantic relationships occur when: Select one: A. interactions between partners deviate from expected patterns. B. interactions between partners become coercive. C. a partner's internal working model of intimate relationships is not effective. D. a partners illusions (unrealistic expectations) about romantic relationships are contradicted.

Answer 92

Berscheid's emotion-in-relationships model (ERM) is one of several models that have been proposed as explanations for affect in close relationships. a. CORRECT Berscheid's model proposes that strong positive or negative emotions occur when there is a disruption in interpersonal scripts - i.e., when a partner violates expectations regarding important couple or personal goals. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect Although ERM addresses the violation of expectations, it does not attribute affect only to a violation of unrealistic expectations, so this is not the best answer of those given. The correct answer is: interactions between partners deviate from expected patterns.

Question 93

In the context of attitude change, "inoculation" is a method for: Select one: A. reducing the likelihood that a listener will be persuaded by a message. B. increasing a listener's attention to a message. C. reducing the likelihood that a listener will forget a message. D. increasing the attractiveness of the person delivering the message.

Answer 93

The notion of inoculation was "borrowed" from the public health practice of giving injections to prevent illnesses. a. CORRECT The purpose of inoculation is to reduce a listener's susceptibility to a persuasive message. It involves three steps: warning the listener of the impending persuasive message; making a weak attack against the listener's position; and having the listener actively defend his/her position. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: reducing the likelihood that a listener will be persuaded by a message.

Question 94

Sherif and Hovland's (1961) social judgment theory is useful for understanding which of the following? Select one: A. interpersonal attraction B. attitude change C. attribution of cause D. impression formation

Answer 94

Social judgment theory distinguishes between three "categories of judgment" that determine our susceptibility to persuasion - the latitude of acceptance, the latitude of non-commitment, and the latitude of rejection. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Social judgment theory predicts that we are most likely to be persuaded (i.e., to change our attitude) when the position advocated by a message is within our latitude of acceptance. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: attitude change

Question 95

Raymond R. and his wife have not been getting along for some time, and Raymond has recently started thinking about seeking a divorce. The problem with getting a divorce is that it will require Raymond to either divide the business he and his wife have or to sell his share of the business to her, neither of which appeals to him. The problem with staying with his wife is that Raymond will have to continue putting up with her nagging and his feeling that he has no "life of his own." Assuming that Raymond is experiencing a "double approach-avoidance conflict," it is most likely that he will do which of the following in the near future? Select one: A. choose one of his two options and feel confident that it was the correct one B. vacillate between the two options, first choosing one and then the other C. antagonize his wife in order to force her to make the decision to get a divorce D. decide that "no one is really satisfied anyway" and, consequently, stay with his wife

Answer 95

Four types of conflict have been distinguished by researchers interested in intraindividual conflict - avoidance-avoidance, approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and double approach-avoidance. Answer B is correct: A double approach-avoidance conflict produces vacillation between the two courses of action. Even if you're not familiar with research on intraindividual conflict, you've probably had a personal experience that could help you understand why this is the correct answer. a. Incorrect This is the more likely outcome in an approach-approach conflict. c. Incorrect This is a possibility, of course, but is not consistent with predictions about the outcome of a double approach-avoidance conflict. d. Incorrect This is also not consistent with predictions about the outcome of an avoidance-avoidance conflict. The correct answer is: vacillate between the two options, first choosing one and then the other

Question 96

In a research study, college students who preferred brown bread were more likely than those who preferred white bread to say that other students prefer brown bread (Mullen et al., 1985). This finding is consistent with the predictions of which of the following? Select one: A. illusory correlation B. actor-observer effect C. fundamental attribution bias D. false consensus bias

Answer 96

For the exam, you want to be familiar with all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question, and these are described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT The false consensus bias is the tendency to believe that other people share our attitudes and beliefs. The correct answer is: false consensus bias

Question 97

``` Solomon Asch (1958) found that a research participant's conformity to group norms was substantially reduced when: Select one: ``` A. the stimulus (task) was unambiguous. B. only one of the group members (confederates) deviated from the group norm. C. the participant was not directly pressured (requested) to conform to the group norm. D. the discrepancy between the groups judgment and the participants judgment increased over time.

Answer 97

In Asch's (1958) studies, group members (participant and confederates) were shown a vertical line and asked to indicate which of three other lines it matched in terms of length. Results indicated that when the confederates offered their estimates first, the participant conformed to the confederates' estimates about one-third of the time. a. Incorrect Asch's studies used an unambiguous stimulus (a vertical line), and the lack of ambiguity did not eliminate conformity to the group norm. b. CORRECT The participant was more likely to conform when the confederates were unanimous in their judgment of the line length than when even one confederate deviated from the group norm. c. Incorrect Participants in Asch's study were not directly pressured (required) to conform to the group norm. d. Incorrect An increase in the discrepancy over time actually increased the likelihood that the participant would conform to the group norm. The correct answer is: only one of the group members (confederates) deviated from the group norm.

Question 98

A person with symbolic racist views is least likely to oppose which of the following? Select one: A. affirmative action B. school integration C. welfare D. bilingual election ballots

Answer 98

Symbolic racism (Sears, 1988) represents a combination of anti-black affect and conservative values, especially individualism. Note that this question is asking which type of opposition is not characteristic of symbolic racism. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT In contrast to "old-fashioned" racism, symbolic racism is characterized by more subtle forms of prejudice and discrimination. A person with symbolic racist views is not likely to oppose school integration because doing so represents an overt form of racism. However, he/she is likely to oppose other efforts designed to promote equality or benefit members of minority groups - e.g., affirmative action, welfare, and bilingual ballots - on the ground that they violate traditional American values. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: school integration

Question 99

Which of the following is true about a person who is faced with an approach-avoidance conflict? Select one: A. The closer the person gets to his/her goal, the stronger the desire to approach it. B. The closer the person gets to his/her goal, the stronger the desire to avoid it. C. Regardless of his/her proximity to the goal, the persons desire to avoid the goal is stronger than his/her desire to approach it. D. Regardless of his/her proximity to the goal, the persons desire to approach it is equal to the desire to avoid it.

Answer 99

Lewin (1931) and Miller (1944) distinguished between four motivational conflicts: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance, and double approach-avoidance. Additional information about these conflicts is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT The approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a goal has both positive and negative aspects. This kind of conflict is difficult to resolve because, as a person moves closer to the goal, the desire to avoid it becomes stronger and, as the person moves away from the goal, the desire to approach it increases. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: The closer the person gets to his/her goal, the stronger the desire to avoid it.

Question 100

Schachter's (1959) conclusion that "misery loves miserable company" is most consistent with the predictions of which of the following? Select one: A. social impact theory B. the overjustification hypothesis C. the notion of psychological reactance D. social comparison theory

Answer 100

Schachter found that, when fearful participants who were anxious about the study they were about to participate in were given a choice of waiting for the study alone or with another anxious participant, they preferred to wait with other another anxious participant. However, if anxious participants were given a choice of waiting alone or with a non-anxious individual, they chose to wait alone. a. Incorrect Social impact theory predicts that the force to comply is determined by the strength, immediacy, and number of sources of social influence that are present. b. Incorrect The overjustification hypothesis predicts that providing a person with external rewards for engaging in a behavior diminishes the person's internal motivation for doing so. c. Incorrect Psychological reactance is the tendency to do the opposite of what is requested because one feels the request is violating one's freedom-of-choice. d. CORRECT Social comparison theory predicts that we reduce uncertainty about our feelings, opinions, etc. by observing those of others in similar circumstances. The correct answer is: social comparison theory

Question 101

Zimbardo's (1970) deindividuation model applies to which of the following? Select one: A. cooperative behavior B. aggressive behavior C. sexual prejudice D. self-attributions

Answer 101

Zimbardo's deindividuation model addresses the effects of anonymity on the likelihood that a person will act aggressively. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Zimbardo found that people were more likely to act aggressively when participating in a group when they could do so anonymously (i.e., when their identity had been disguised). c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: aggressive behavior

Question 102

People who frequently view violent shows on television are most likely to: Select one: A. exhibit high levels of empathy for the victims of violence. B. judge aggressive retaliation as unacceptable and unjustifiable. C. report that they have been the victims of unprovoked violence. D. overestimate the likelihood that they will be a victim of violence.

Answer 102

Most of the research on media violence has produced results that are consistent with social learning theory - i.e., that we acquire attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through observation. a. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. Long-term exposure to media violence has been linked to a decrease in both empathy and concern for the victims of violence. b. Incorrect This is also the opposite of what is true. People who are often exposed to media violence are more likely to judge aggressive retaliation more positively than do people who are infrequently (or not) exposed to media violence. c. Incorrect Although long-term exposure to violence has been linked to a tendency to overestimate one's risk for being a victim of violence, it has not been linked to an increase in reported rates of being a victim. d. CORRECT The research has confirmed that long-term exposure to media violence is associated with a tendency to overestimate the amount of violence in society as well as the likelihood of being a victim of violence. The correct answer is: overestimate the likelihood that they will be a victim of violence.

Question 103

The predictions of social exchange theory are most applicable to our relationships with: Select one: A. close friends. B. parents. C. romantic partners. D. business associates.

Answer 103

Even if you're unfamiliar with the predictions of social exchange theory, you may have been able to identify the correct answer to this question by noticing that one of the answers is unlike the others. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT The research suggests that social exchange theory does not apply to people we are very close to (e.g., close friends, parents, and romantic partners) but, instead, to individuals we have more formal relationships with or have recently met (e.g., business associates, acquaintances, and strangers). The correct answer is: business associates.

Question 104

Research on the intergroup contact hypothesis has demonstrated that antagonism between members of two groups is most likely to be reduced when: Select one: A. members of the two groups are initially provided with numerous opportunities for casual (superficial) contact. B. members of the two groups are provided with incentives for getting along while interacting. C. the leaders from each group meet to discuss the issues underlying the antagonism before group members interact. D. interactions between group members provide opportunities to disconfirm negative stereotypes.

Answer 104

The research has shown that, for interpersonal contact to reduce intergroup hostility, certain conditions must be met. a. Incorrect Casual contact may actually provide opportunities for continued expressions of hostility. b. Incorrect The research on the intergroup contact hypothesis has not found this to be an effective method for reducing intergroup hostility. c. Incorrect Having leaders meet to discuss the issues would likely be subsequently viewed by group members with suspicion, resulting in even more problems. d. CORRECT Of the answers given, this one is most consistent with the research. Intergroup contact is most likely to reduce hostility when it provides opportunities for learning that negative stereotypes about members of the opposing group are untrue. The correct answer is: interactions between group members provide opportunities to disconfirm negative stereotypes.

Question 105

In a research study, prison inmates and counselors working at the prison were asked to explain why the inmates had committed their crimes. In response, the inmates cited situational factors, while the counselors attributed the offenses to the dispositional characteristics of the inmates. Which of the following predicts the outcome of this study? Select one: A. fundamental attribution bias B. self-serving bias C. actor-observer effect D. false consensus effect

Answer 105

The answers to this question are all attribution biases or other cognitive biases that you'll want to be familiar with for the licensing exam. a. Incorrect The fundamental attribution bias is the tendency to overestimate the role of dispositional factors when making attributions about the behaviors of others. Since the fundamental attribution bias only explains the counselors' attributions about the crimes committed by the inmates, this answer is only partially correct and not the best answer of those given. b. Incorrect The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to make dispositional attributions for our successes but situational attributions for our failures. c. CORRECT The actor-observer effect addresses the discrepancy in an actor's and observer's attributions for the actor's behavior. It predicts that actors tend to attribute their own behaviors to situational factors, while observers tend to attribute the actors' behaviors to dispositional factors. d. Incorrect The false consensus effect is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us. The correct answer is: actor-observer effect

Question 106

Research by Herek (2000) and others on the attitudes of heterosexual men and women toward gays and lesbians has found that all of the following have been linked to higher levels of sexual prejudice EXCEPT: Select one: A. younger (versus older) age. B. high levels of authoritarianism. C. conservative political views. D. lower levels of education.

Answer 106

The research has been fairly consistent with regard to characteristics associated with high levels of sexual prejudice. a. CORRECT Older (not younger) age has been linked to higher levels of sexual prejudice. All of the characteristics listed in the other answers have been linked to higher levels of sexual prejudice among heterosexual men and women. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: younger (versus older) age.

Question 107

Self-verification theory predicts that a person with low self-esteem will prefer to receive evaluations from others that: Select one: A. confirm his/her own negative self-evaluations. B. refute his/her own negative self-evaluations. C. avoid addressing his/her self-evaluations. D. are clearly non-evaluative.

Answer 107

Swann, Pelham, and Krull's (1989) self-verification theory predicts that people prefer confirmation of their self-concept. a. CORRECT Self-verification theory predicts that a person with low self-esteem will prefer evaluations from others that confirm his/her own negative self-evaluations. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: confirm his/her own negative self-evaluations.

Question 108

Those with privilege may hold beliefs that they are superior to others or others are inferior to them, that they have the power to impose standards, and that their reality is the same experience for everyone. This sort of worldview is known as: Select one: A. Ethnocentric monoculturalism B. Prejudice C. Racism D. Discrimination

Answer 108

The correct answer is A. Ethnocentric monoculturalism is a worldview sometimes exhibited by those who hold privilege. Answers B, C, and D may also be exhibited by individuals in privileged groups, however, the views described in the question are better defined as ethnocentric monoculturalism. The correct answer is: Ethnocentric monoculturalism

Question 109

Lewin's (1936) field theory predicts that human behavior is a function of: Select one: A. the persons attitude, values, and beliefs. B. the persons actual and perceived abilities. C. the characteristics of the person and the persons environment. D. the antecedents and consequences of the behavior.

Answer 109

Lewin's (1936) field theory is expressed by the following formula: B = f(P,E), where B is behavior, P is person, and E is environment. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Lewin described behavior as a function of interactions between the person's characteristics (e.g., heredity, personality, health) and the characteristics of the person's social environment. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: the characteristics of the person and the persons environment.

Question 110

In a research study, a social psychologist offers participants either $1.00 or $20.00 to tell potential participants that a dull experiment was very interesting. With regard to cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory, which of the following is true? Select one: A. Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment, while self-perception theory predicts that participants in the $20.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment. B. Self-perception theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment, while cognitive dissonance theory predicts that participants in the $20.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment. C. Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory both predict that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment than will those in the $20.00 condition. D. Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory both predict that participants in the $20.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment than will those in the $1.00 condition.

Answer 110

Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory make the same prediction about the outcome of the study described in this question but do so for different reasons. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will report liking the dull experiment more than will those in the $20.00 condition in order to reduce the dissonance they feel about describing the dull study as interesting to potential participants. In contrast, self-perception theory predicts that participants in the $1.00 condition will report greater liking for the dull experiment because they will evaluate their actual opinion of the study by looking at their overt behavior (telling others that the experiment was interesting). d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: Cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory both predict that participants in the $1.00 condition will subsequently report greater liking for the dull experiment than will those in the $20.00 condition.

Question 111

In Zimbardo's (1972) prison study, students were randomly assigned to enact the role of either a prisoner or prison guard and were placed in an environment that simulated an actual prison. Results of the study indicated that: Select one: A. introverted prisoners and extroverted prison guards more easily adapted to their roles than did extroverted prisoners and introverted prison guards. B. prisoners and prison guards more easily adapted to their roles when they were paid for participating in the study than when they were not paid. C. prisoners and prison guards both quickly adapted to their assigned roles to such an extreme that the study had to be terminated early. D. prisoners and prison guards actively resisted their assigned roles and often deliberately engaged in role reversal.

Answer 111

Zimbardo's (1972) prison study confirmed that people often alter their behaviors so that they are consistent with assigned roles. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Within the first six days of Zimbardo's prison simulation study, students assigned the role of guard became very aggressive and authoritarian (e.g., they issued arbitrary commands to prisoners to do push-ups and refused requests to go to the bathroom), while those assigned the role of prisoner quickly lapsed into depression and helplessness and began exhibiting signs of both physical and emotional distress. Because of the rapid decay of the behavior of both prison guards and prisoners, the study was halted prematurely. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: prisoners and prison guards both quickly adapted to their assigned roles to such an extreme that the study had to be terminated early.

Question 112

A co-worker says, "It never fails. Every time I plan to go hiking with my children, it rains." Assuming that your co-worker's claim is not really true, her statement is best described as a manifestation of which of the following? Select one: A. false consensus bias B. hedonic relevance C. base rate fallacy D. illusory correlation

Answer 112

In this situation, your co-worker is overestimating the relationship between two events (hiking and raining). a. Incorrect The false consensus bias is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us. b. Incorrect Hedonic relevance is a potential source of bias when making attributions about the behavior of another person and refers to the extent to which the other person's behavior has positive or negative consequences for us. c. Incorrect The base rate fallacy refers to the tendency to consider statistical probability rates as false and, as a result, to rely on irrelevant information rather than statistical information when making a judgment. d. CORRECT The tendency to overestimate a relationship between two variables is referred to as illusory correlation. Illusory correlation is most likely to occur when the two events or other variables are distinctive (e.g., occur relatively infrequently). The correct answer is: illusory correlation

Question 113

According to Herek (1991), harassment of and violence against lesbians and gay men is the result of: Select one: A. an antisocial predisposition. B. extreme authoritarianism. C. homophobia. D. heterosexism.

Answer 113

Herek (1991) describes the harassment of and violence against lesbians and gay men as an extension of the heterosexism that pervades society. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Herek (1991) defines heterosexism as "an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes among non-heterosexual forms of behavior, identity, relationships, or community" (p. 150). His research has linked a combination of individual (psychological) and cultural heterosexism to violence against lesbians and gay men. The correct answer is: heterosexism.

Question 114

Research on persuasion has found that people who argue against their own self-interest are: Select one: A. usually viewed by listeners as untrustworthy. B. usually viewed by listeners as credible. C. viewed as reliable by uninformed listeners only. D. viewed as knowledgeable by listeners who have low-esteem.

Answer 114

The studies have found that a communicator's credibility is affected by a number of factors including his/her apparent motives for advocating a particular position. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Walster, Aronson, and Abrahams (1966) found that communicators are usually considered credible by listeners when they are arguing against their own self-interest, apparently because they are perceived as more trustworthy when doing so. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: usually viewed by listeners as credible.

Question 115

The results of a research study on persuasion reveal that, one month following exposure to a persuasive message, participants in the study can remember the message but have forgotten the source of the message. This result is a manifestation of which of the following? Select one: A. primacy effect B. deindividuation C. sleeper effect D. correspondence bias

Answer 115

The phenomenon described in this question is probably one that you have experienced yourself. It has been used to explain why the attitude change produced by a high-credible communicator decreases over time, while the attitude change produced by a low-credible communicator increases over time. a. Incorrect The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember stimuli that occurred first better than stimuli that occurred last. b. Incorrect Deindividuation refers to the tendency for people to be more willing to act in antisocial ways when they can do so anonymously. c. CORRECT This question describes the sleeper effect - i.e., the tendency to remember a message over time but to forget its source. d. Incorrect The correspondence bias is another name for the fundamental attribution bias and is not relevant to the phenomenon described in this question. The correct answer is: sleeper effect

Question 116

During a family therapy session, the therapist tells the 8-year old son that he should keep annoying his sister, even though it makes her very mad. The boy says, "I don't have to if I don't want to." The boy's response to the therapist's request is best described as a manifestation of which of the following? Select one: A. paradox B. double-bind C. source derogation D. psychological reactance

Answer 116

Note that this question is asking about the boy's behavior, not the therapist's. a. Incorrect The therapist is using paradox, but this question is asking about the boy's behavior. b. Incorrect Double-bind communication presents a "mixed message" (e.g., contradictory verbal and nonverbal messages) and is not relevant to the situation described in this question. c. Incorrect Source derogation refers to defending oneself against persuasion by criticizing the source of the message. d. CORRECT Psychological reactance occurs when we do the opposite of what is requested or desired by another person because we feel our freedom-of-choice is being restricted. In family therapy, paradox is sometimes used to elicit resistance (psychological reactance) in order to promote change. The correct answer is: psychological reactance

Question 117

In a research study on bystander intervention, a participant hears someone (a confederate) fall and cry out in pain in an adjacent room. In this situation, the participant is most likely to respond to this apparent need for help when the participant is: Select one: A. alone. B. with a friend. C. with a stranger. D. with three or more other participants.

Answer 117

Studies on bystander intervention have found that a person in need is most likely to receive help when there is only one bystander. a. CORRECT Research has shown that a bystander is more likely to intervene when alone than when in the presence of others, regardless of whether the others are strangers or friends. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect The greater the number of bystanders, the greater the bystander apathy (i.e., the less likely a person will receive assistance). The correct answer is: alone.

Question 118

_____________ predicts that our perceptions of fairness in a relationship are more important than the absolute costs and rewards of being in that relationship. Select one: A. Social comparison theory B. Social judgment theory C. Equity theory D. Self-verification theory

Answer 118

Of the theories listed in the answers, only one explicitly addresses the costs and rewards of a relationship. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT According to equity theory, people consider a relationship equitable when they believe their reward/cost ratio is proportional to the reward/cost ratio of the other person. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: Equity theory

Question 119

A father is quite upset about his 11-year old son's recent unwillingness to do as he is told, and he tells his son, "I'm the boss around here and you must do as I say." The father is relying on which type of social power to control his son's behavior? Select one: A. expert B. referent C. legitimate D. coercive

Answer 119

French and Raven (1959) distinguished between six types of social power - COERCIVE, REWARD, EXPERT, REFERENT, INFORMATIONAL, and LEGITIMATE. Additional information about them is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect When using expert power, an individual emphasizes his/her superior knowledge or expertise. The father would be using expert power if he had said, "You'll do what I say because I know what's best for you." b. Incorrect Referent power refers to the ability of an individual or group to control the behavior of others because of their desire to identify with that individual or group. The father would be relying on referent power if he said "You should do what I say because you're part of this family." c. CORRECT When using legitimate power, the individual emphasizes his/her position of power or authority and the other person's obligation to comply. In this situation, the father is relying on his position as "boss" to control his son's behavior. d. Incorrect Coercive power is being used when an individual influences the behavior of others through the control of punishments. The father would be using coercive power if he said, "If you don't do what I say, you'll have to stay in your room all weekend." The correct answer is: legitimate

Question 120

Cognitive dissonance theory is most useful for understanding: Select one: A. interpersonal attraction. B. minority influence. C. self attributions. D. attitude change.

Answer 120

According to cognitive dissonance theory, inconsistencies in cognitions produce tension (dissonance), which motivates the individual to modify one of his/her cognitions. Additional information about cognitive dissonance theory is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Cognitive dissonance theory is useful for understanding the circumstances in which a person changes his/her attitudes or beliefs - i.e., it predicts that attitude change is, in some cases, an attempt to alleviate dissonance. The correct answer is: attitude change.

Question 121

A movie viewer is most likely to report feeling uncomfortable in a crowded movie theater when he/she is viewing a ________ film. Select one: A. frightening horror B. sexually arousing C. humorous D. boring

Answer 121

The consequences of crowding depend on several factors including the nature of the environment and task. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Research by Worchel and Brown (1984) found that crowding is experienced as less uncomfortable or stressful in attention-grabbing, arousing situations than in uninteresting situations. They conclude that this difference is due to the fact that crowding produces arousal and, when the arousal can be attributed to the circumstances, it is not experienced as unpleasant. However, when the arousal cannot be attributed to the circumstances (e.g., when the movie is boring), it is experienced as unpleasant. The correct answer is: boring

Question 122

Which of the following strategies would probably be least effective for reducing aggressiveness in children? Select one: A. exposure to a nonaggressive model B. opportunities for catharsis C. social skills training D. a threat of retaliation from a high-status person

Answer 122

Note that this question is asking for the most ineffective method for reducing aggression. a. Incorrect The research has shown that exposure to models can increase both positive and negative behaviors. b. CORRECT Catharsis has not been found to be an effective way to reduce aggressive behavior. In fact, there is evidence that it may actually increase aggression. c. Incorrect In many cases, aggressiveness is due to a lack of alternative behaviors. Consequently, social skills training is often effective because its goal is to replace undesirable behaviors (e.g., aggression) with more desirable ones. d. Incorrect The research has shown that a threat of retaliation reduces aggression, at least in certain circumstances (e.g., when the threat comes from a person with high status or power and is not accompanied by provocation). The correct answer is: opportunities for catharsis

Question 123

In his book, The Nature of Prejudice, Gordon Allport concludes that: Select one: A. stateways cannot change folkways. B. stateways can only intensify existing folkways. C. stateways are often in advance of folkways. D. folkways always precede stateways.

Answer 123

Answer C is correct. In contrast to the traditional view that "stateways cannot change folkways" (e.g., you cannot legislate against racial prejudice), Allport asserts that, at least in the United States, stateways are often in advance of folkways. Allport proposes that, while laws do not prevent violations altogether, they do act as a restraint and can, therefore, break the vicious cycle of racial prejudice and discrimination. In other words, by terminating the overt signs of prejudice through legislation, the open expression of prejudice is discouraged and, eventually, thoughts and attitudes "fall into line." The correct answer is: stateways are often in advance of folkways.

Question 124

Aronson and Linder's (1965) gain-loss theory predicts that we will like a person most when his/her evaluations of us are: Select one: A. initially positive and remain positive. B. initially negative but become positive. C. initially positive but become negative. D. initially and subsequently neutral.

Answer 124

Gain-loss theory (Aronson and Linder, 1965) is a theory of personal attraction. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Gain-loss theory predicts that an evaluation sequence involving a change from a negative to a positive evaluation will result in greater liking for the evaluator than will a consistent positive evaluation sequence and, conversely, that an evaluation sequence involving a change from a positive to a negative evaluation will result in greater dislike for the evaluator than will a consistent negative evaluation sequence. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: initially negative but become positive.

Question 125

Moscovici (1985) found that individuals with a minority opinion are most likely to change the minds of those holding the majority opinion when those with the minority opinion: Select one: A. express their opinion as consistently as possible. B. use ingratiation techniques to gain the acceptance of members of the majority. C. initially agree with the majority position and gradually introduce their own opinion. D. point out the ways in which they agree with the majority.

Answer 125

Moscovici (1985) was interested in the factors that increase the likelihood that a minority can sway the opinion of the majority. a. CORRECT Moscovici found consistency to be the key factor in determining whether a minority would successfully change the opinion of the majority. b. Incorrect This was not found by Moscovici to be an effective way for a minority to alter the opinion of the majority. c. Incorrect Maintaining a consistent position is more effective than is initially agreeing with the majority. d. Incorrect This has not been found to be an effective way for a minority to alter the opinion of the majority. The correct answer is: express their opinion as consistently as possible.

Question 126

Heider's (1958) balance theory describes attitude change as a function of which of the following? Select one: A. categories of judgment B. fear arousal C. cognitive consistency D. behavioral intentions

Answer 126

Balance theory focuses on the relationships between three entities (the person, another person, and a third person, object, or event) and proposes that the relations between these entities may be balanced or unbalanced. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT According to balance theory, when the relationships between the entities are unbalanced, the person experiences a state of disequilibrium (inconsistency) and is motivated to change his/her attitude toward one of the entities. See the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials for additional information on balance theory. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: cognitive consistency

Question 127

Which of the following has been used to explain the phenomenon known as the Zeigarnik effect? Select one: A. bystander apathy B. intergroup cooperation C. deindividuation D. psychic tension

Answer 127

The Zeigarnik effect refers to the tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Zeigarnik was a student of Lewin and proposed that it is easier to recall uncompleted tasks (at least in some conditions) because they create a state of "psychic tension." The correct answer is: psychic tension

Question 128

Ajzen's (1991) theory of planned behavior predicts that attitudes are good predictors of a person's behavior when the measure of attitudes assesses the person's: Select one: A. intrinsic motivation. B. ego involvement. C. behavioral intention. D. past behavior.

Answer 128

The name of Ajzen's theory -- i.e., the theory of planned behavior -- may have helped you identify the correct response even if you're not familiar with its assumptions. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT The theory of planned behavior predicts that the accuracy of a measure of a person's attitude is increased when the measure assesses the three factors that determine the person's behavioral intention -- i.e., the person's attitude toward engaging in the behavior, what the person believes other people think about the behavior, and the person's perceived behavioral control. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: behavioral intention.

Question 129

A therapy client is exhibiting a depressive attributional style when she consistently attributes the negative events she experiences to: Select one: A. internal, stable, and global factors. B. external, stable, and global factors. C. internal, unstable, and specific factors. D. external, unstable, and specific factors.

Answer 129

Researchers interested in causal attribution distinguish between three attributional dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific. a. CORRECT Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale (1978) found that people who are depressed often exhibit signs of learned helplessness. In other words, they tend to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: internal, stable, and global factors.

Question 130

The elaboration likelihood model predicts that the recipient of a persuasive message is more likely to use the peripheral route of information processing when: Select one: A. the person delivering the message is a well-liked and trusted celebrity. B. the recipient is in a neutral or slightly negative mood. C. the message is considered important or personally relevant by the recipient. D. the recipient has a high need for cognition.

Answer 130

The elaboration likelihood model (Petty and Cacioppo, 1980) distinguishes between central and peripheral processing routes. The central route involves active, effortful cognitive processing (cognitive elaboration), while the peripheral route involves reliance on simple decision-making rules. a. CORRECT A listener is more likely to use the peripheral route (i.e., rely on peripheral cues) when the person delivering the message is attractive or well-liked, b. Incorrect A recipient who is in a neutral or slightly negative mood is more likely to use the central route for processing a communication. c. Incorrect A person is more likely to use the central route when the message is important or personally relevant. d. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. People with a high need for cognition (i.e., those who usually think carefully about issues) are more likely to rely on the central route. The correct answer is: the person delivering the message is a well-liked and trusted celebrity.

Question 131

According to Kelman (1961), the possible responses to social influence are: Select one: A. compliance, identification, internalization B. conformity, compliance, obedience C. compliance, conformity, internalization D. rejection, concession, compliance

Answer 131

As noted in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials, Kelman (1961) distinguished between three types of responses to social influence. a. CORRECT These are the three responses identified by Kelman. b. Incorrect See explanation above. c. Incorrect See explanation above. d. Incorrect See explanation above. The correct answer is: compliance, identification, internalization

Question 132

Research on __________ has found that people tend to pay more attention to information that confirms their beliefs about themselves than to information that contradicts those beliefs. Select one: A. propositions B. heuristics C. schemas D. metamemory

Answer 132

Researchers interested in how people interpret their experiences distinguish between several phenomena including schemas, prototypes, and scripts. a. Incorrect Researchers interested in declarative knowledge define propositions as simple ideas that are either true or false. b. Incorrect Heuristics are "mental shortcuts" that help us process complex information. c. CORRECT Schemas (schemata) are organized mental networks of information that are based on prior experience or knowledge and that influence our interpretation of or reaction to current experience. Research on schemas has found that people tend to pay attention to and recall schema-consistent information better than information that is inconsistent with their current schemas. For example, a person who considers herself to be a very independent person will be able to recall many examples of her independence but few, if any, examples of times when she acted in dependent ways. d. Incorrect Metamemory refers to awareness of one's own memory processes. The correct answer is: schemas

Question 133

Participants in a research study are injected with epinephrine which produces mild arousal. One-half of the participants are told to expect arousal while the other half are told that the injection will have no physiological side effects. Each participant is then placed in a waiting room with a confederate who has been instructed to act in an angry manner. Subsequently, participants who were told to expect arousal from the epinephrine report no change in their emotional state, while those who were told to expect no side effects report feeling angry. Results of this study provide evidence for which of the following? Select one: A. attribution theory B. dissonance theory C. self-serving bias D. self-perception theory

Answer 133

In the study described in this question, participants in one group have an explanation for their arousal (the epinephrine), while participants in the other group do not. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Results of the study are consistent with self-perception theory, which predicts that, in ambiguous situations, a person's self-attributions are based on observations of cues in the external environment (e.g., the behavior of others). The correct answer is: self-perception theory

Question 134

According to Hays (2001), would a 25-year-old individual be considered privileged? Select one: A. Yes, their age affords them rights that other age groups do not receive B. No, the age group that is privileged is between 30-60 years C. No, age is not included in the groups Hays identified D. Yes, 25-year-olds are more able-bodied than older individuals

Answer 134

The correct answer is B. According to Hays, regarding age and generational influences, individuals between the ages of 30 and 60 hold privilege, so answers A, C, and D are incorrect. Regarding answer D, Hays did identify individuals without disabilities as holding privilege, however the question focuses on the individuals age, not level of ability. The correct answer is: No, the age group that is privileged is between 30-60 years

Question 135

Research on prejudice indicates that certain conditions can reduce intergroup hostilities. Which of the following conditions would be MOST effective for reducing racial prejudice displayed by groups of White and African American children? Select one: A. the children are required to cooperate in order to achieve a common goal B. the children are confronted with a "common enemy" C. contact between the children occurs daily over an extended period of time D. the children are provided with norms that prescribe courtesy and friendliness

Answer 135

Research on intergroup hostility has contributed greatly to the understanding of the variables that contribute to prejudice. One of the most consistent findings is that intergroup hostilities (e.g., prejudice) can be reduced by having groups work on a common goal (Cook, 1978; Sherif, 1966). a. CORRECT When children are required to cooperate in order to achieve a common ("superordinate") goal, prejudice is likely to decrease. b. Incorrect Sherif (1966), for example, found that the introduction of a common enemy merely widened the scope of conflict. c. Incorrect Research has generally not supported the notion that increased contact alone is sufficient to reduce prejudice. In fact, Sherif (1966) found that increased contact under pleasant circumstances only provided more opportunities for the expression of hostility. d. Incorrect Research has not supported the notion that prejudice can be reduced simply if children are provided with norms that prescribe courtesy and friendliness. The correct answer is: the children are required to cooperate in order to achieve a common goal

Question 136

Sherif (1935) used which of the following to investigate conformity to group norms? Select one: A. visual cliff B. jigsaw classroom C. door-in-the-face technique D. autokinetic effect

Answer 136

Sherif's (1935) study is a classic in social psychology, and you'll want to be familiar with it for the licensing exam. Additional information about the study is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT The autokinetic effect is a perceptual phenomenon in which a stationary point of light appears to move in a darkened room. Sherif found that, in certain circumstances, research participants conformed to the judgments of confederates regarding how far the light had moved (even though the light was actually stationary). The correct answer is: autokinetic effect

Question 137

As a supervisor, Jason J. always tries to modify his communication and managerial style so that they "match" the style and characteristics of the particular employee he is interacting with. Based on this information, you can conclude that Jason: Select one: A. is high in self-monitoring. B. is high in initiating structure. C. has low self-efficacy beliefs. D. has an internal locus of control.

Answer 137

The individual described in this question is adjusting his behavior to fit the behavior of each employee that he supervises. a. CORRECT High self-monitors are concerned about the impression they make and, as a result, pay close attention to the behaviors of other people so that they can adjust their own behavior to fit the expectations, style, and other characteristics of those people. b. Incorrect Initiating structure refers to the degree to which a leader is goal (task) oriented and is not relevant to the situation described in this question. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: is high in self-monitoring.

Question 138

The belief that watching someone else act aggressively will serve to reduce one's own aggressiveness is most consistent with the notion of: Select one: A. inoculation. B. vicarious reinforcement. C. catharsis. D. vicarious desensitization.

Answer 138

A number of approaches have been proposed as means for reducing aggressive behavior. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT Catharsis involves the release of emotion, and some experts believe that one way to reduce aggression, anger, and hostility is through catharsis. Note, however, that the research has not been very supportive of this proposal. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: catharsis.

Question 139

The tendency to take credit for our successes but to blame other people or external circumstances for our failures is referred as the: Select one: A. fundamental attribution bias. B. confirmation bias. C. self-serving bias. D. optimism bias.

Answer 139

The answers to this question are all biases that affect our attributions or other aspect of our cognitive processing. a. Incorrect The fundamental attribution bias is the tendency to attribute another person's behavior to dispositional factors. b. Incorrect The confirmation bias involves focusing on and seeking out information that confirms our preconceptions. c. CORRECT The self-serving bias applies to the attributions we make for our own behaviors. It refers to the tendency to take credit for our successes (i.e., make dispositional attributions) but to blame the circumstances or other people for our failures (i.e., make situational attributions). d. Incorrect As its name suggests, the optimism bias refers to a tendency to be overly optimistic about the outcomes of our behaviors. The correct answer is: self-serving bias.

Question 140

According to Baumeister, Catanese, and Wallace (2002), a man may feel that his personal freedom is being restricted when a woman refuses his sexual advances and, as a result, become aggressive toward the woman. In other words, Baumeister and his colleagues suggest that, in some circumstances, sexual aggression toward women by men may be attributable to which of the following? Select one: A. sublimation B. psychological reactance C. coercive power D. behavioral catharsis

Answer 140

This question is referring to a study conducted by R. F. Baumeister, K. R. Catanese, and H. M. Wallace on the causes of sexual coercion (Conquest by force: A narcissistic reactance theory of rape and sexual coercion, Review of General Psychology, 2002, 6, 92-135). However, you may have been able to identify the correct answer even if you're not familiar with this study as long as you're familiar with the concept being asked about. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT The phrase "feel that his personal freedom is being restricted" should have helped you identify the correct response to this question. Psychological reactance occurs when a person acts in a way that is opposite of what is being requested because the person feels that his/her freedom-of-choice is being restricted. Based on their research, Baumeister and his colleagues conclude that the attempts of sexually coercive men to force women to engage in sexual behavior is the result of a combination of reactance and narcissism. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: psychological reactance

Question 141

The jigsaw technique is a(n): Select one: A. individual decision-making strategy. B. cooperative learning strategy. C. method for reducing susceptibility to persuasion. D. method for decreasing conformity to group norms.

Answer 141

The jigsaw method was first used by Aronson and colleagues (1978). a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT The jigsaw classroom was developed by Aronson and his colleagues as a method for enhancing learning and motivation and reducing racial/ethnic conflict in classrooms. Additional information about the jigsaw classroom is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: cooperative learning strategy.

Question 142

Berkowitz (1971) revised the original frustration-aggression hypothesis by proposing that frustration leads to aggression only when: Select one: A. the aggressor anticipates positive consequences for acting aggressively. B. there are aggressive cues in the environment. C. the recipient of the aggression has low status. D. the recipient of the aggression provoked the aggressor.

Answer 142

The original frustration-aggression hypothesis proposed by Dollard et al. (1939) was subsequently modified by several researchers including Berkowitz. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Berkowitz's (1971) research found that frustration leads to a "readiness for aggression" but that the actual expression of aggression requires anger arousal plus the presence of appropriate environmental (aggressive) cues. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: there are aggressive cues in the environment.

Question 143

In a research study, boys observe a model act aggressively toward an inflatable "Bobo" doll. For some boys, the model is rewarded for acting aggressively; for others, the model is punished; and, for others, the model is neither rewarded nor punished. Subsequently, all boys are offered incentives for acting aggressively toward the doll. Based on your knowledge of Bandura's (1983) research on social learning theory, you predict that: Select one: A. only boys who observed the model being rewarded will act aggressively toward the doll. B. only boys who observed the model being rewarded or receiving no consequence will act aggressively toward the doll. C. only boys who observed the model being punished will act aggressively toward the doll. D. all boys (those who saw the model rewarded, punished, or receiving no consequence) will act aggressively toward the doll.

Answer 143

The results of Bandura's study confirmed that learning and performance are distinct - i.e., all boys learned the aggressive behavior by observing the model regardless of whether the model received a reward, punishment, or no consequence for acting aggressively. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT Bandura found that, when no incentive was offered to the boys for imitating the model's behavior, only those in the reward or no consequence condition did so. However, when boys were offered an incentive for imitating the model, all boys acted aggressively toward the Bobo doll. The correct answer is: all boys (those who saw the model rewarded, punished, or receiving no consequence) will act aggressively toward the doll.

Question 144

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion predicts that: Select one: A. central route processing produces attitude change that is more persistent over time than does peripheral route processing. B. in terms of short-term effects, central route processing produces a greater amount of attitude change than does peripheral route processing. C. central route processing relies more on environmental cues than does peripheral route processing. D. central route processing produces positive attitude change while peripheral route processing is more likely to produce negative attitude change.

Answer 144

Petty and Cacioppo's (1980) elaboration likelihood model distinguishes between central and peripheral processing routes. The two routes differ in terms of the amount of effortful cognitive processing (elaboration) they require and their impact on attitude change. a. CORRECT The model predicts (and the research has confirmed) that attitude change resulting from central (versus peripheral) route processing results in more persistent attitude change as well as attitudes that are more predictive of behavior. b. Incorrect In terms of immediate (short-term) effects, the two routes can produce the same amount of attitude change. c. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. It is peripheral processing that relies on environmental (peripheral) cues - for example, the length of the message or the attractiveness of the person delivering the message. d. Incorrect Both routes can produce either positive or negative (favorable or unfavorable) attitude change. The correct answer is: central route processing produces attitude change that is more persistent over time than does peripheral route processing.

Question 145

_____________ refers to publicly acting in ways that are consistent with what is requested by another person in order to obtain a reward or avoid punishment while privately disagreeing with the request. Select one: A. Identification B. Internalization C. Commitment D. Compliance

Answer 145

Research has found that social influence can have one of three effects on an individual's opinions and behavior - compliance, identification, and internalization. a. Incorrect Identification occurs when a person changes his/her opinion or behavior in response to a request because he/she wants to be liked by or identified with the person making the request. b. Incorrect Internalization occurs when the person changes his/her opinion or behavior because the person actually (privately) accepts the beliefs or opinions of another person. c. Incorrect Commitment is not one of the terms that is usually used to describe responses to persuasion but, in terms of its general meaning, is most similar to internalization. d. CORRECT Compliance occurs when a person publicly changes his/her opinion to obtain a reward or avoid punishment but does not actually (privately) accept that opinion. The correct answer is: Compliance

Question 146

When a listener is exposed to both sides of an argument, a primacy effect is most likely to occur when: Select one: A. the first side of the argument is presented immediately before the second side and the listeners attitude is measured immediately after presentation of the second argument. B. the first side of the argument is presented immediately before the second side and the listeners attitude is measured at a later time. C. there is a delay between presentation of the first and second sides of the argument and the listeners attitude is measured immediately after presentation of the second argument. D. there is a delay between presentation of the first and second sides of the argument and the listeners attitude is measured at a later time.

Answer 146

The research has found that the order of presentation of two sides of an argument and the time at which a listener's attitude is measured determine whether a primacy or recency effect will occur. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT When both sides of an argument are presented, a PRIMACY EFFECT occurs (the listener is swayed more by the first argument) when the second argument immediately follows the first and the attitude measure is administered at a later time. In contrast, a RECENCY EFFECT occurs (the listener is swayed more by the second argument) when there is a delay between presentation of the two sides of the argument and the attitude measure is administered immediately after the second argument. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: the first side of the argument is presented immediately before the second side and the listeners attitude is measured at a later time.

Question 147

Stanley Milgram investigated which of the following at Yale University in the 1960s? Select one: A. the willingness of individuals to conform to group norms even when those norms were obviously incorrect B. the willingness of individuals to obey an authority even when doing so had harmful consequences for someone else C. the ability of individuals holding a minority opinion to influence the opinion of the majority D. the ability of exposure to repeated conflict among groups to generate hostility and aggression toward members of the outgroup

Answer 147

Milgram's research at Yale University is among the most well-known and conroversial research in the field of social psychology. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Milgram's research found that, under certain conditions, people are willing to comply with the requests of an authority, even when doing seems to have negative consequences for another person. b. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: the willingness of individuals to obey an authority even when doing so had harmful consequences for someone else

Question 148

According to social comparison theory: Select one: A. we feel better when people like and appreciate us. B. we often judge our own actions by looking at those of other people. C. we tend to imitate other people who we perceive to be most like us. D. we are most attracted to people who compare favorably with us.

Answer 148

Even if you're unfamiliar with social comparison theory, you may have been able to identify the correct answer to this question since its name describes what it predicts. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Social comparison theory "sounds like" what it is: It predicts that people make judgments about themselves by comparing their behaviors and beliefs to those of other people. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: we often judge our own actions by looking at those of other people.

Question 149

Research has found that which of the following is most important for reducing the negative effects of crowding on behavior? Select one: A. diffusion of responsibility B. level of self-monitoring C. a sense of control D. behavioral incentives

Answer 149

The impact of crowding has been linked to a number of individual and environmental characteristics. Of the phenomena listed in the answers, however, only one has been identified as a key determinant of the impact of crowding on behavior. a. Incorrect See explanation for response c. b. Incorrect See explanation for response c. c. CORRECT The research has found that a sense of control over the situation mediates the impact of crowding on behavior. For example, Sherrod (1974) found that, when people working on a task in a crowded situation could press an "escape button" in order to leave the situation, their performance was enhanced even though they never actually pressed the button. d. Incorrect See explanation for response c. The correct answer is: a sense of control

Question 150

Asch (1946) found that some characteristics (e.g., warm and cold) influence the impressions people form of others more than other characteristics do, and he referred to these influential characteristics as: Select one: A. stable attributes. B. central traits. C. schemata. D. stereotypes.

Answer 150

Solomon Asch (1946) was among the first to conduct research on impression formation. The results of his studies confirmed that some characteristics have a greater impact on impression formation than others do. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT When Asch presented participants in his studies with a list of adjectives that supposedly described another person, he found that certain traits were the most important determinants of the participants' impressions of that person. Asch concluded that these CENTRAL (influential) TRAITS are characteristics that are highly associated with other characteristics and, as a result, have a strong impact on impression formation. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: central traits.

Question 151

Research on consumer behavior has found that providing a bonus to customers for purchasing a product increases the sales of that product. However, if the bonus is subsequently discontinued, product loyalty declines substantially. This phenomenon is predicted by which of the following? Select one: A. availability heuristic B. dilution effect C. psychological reactance D. overjustification hypothesis

Answer 151

In the situation described in this question, removal of an external reinforcement produces a decrease in the target behavior. a. Incorrect The availability heuristic refers to the tendency to judge the frequency of an event based on how easy it is to think of examples of that event. b. Incorrect The dilution effect refers to the weakening of an inference about someone due to the presence of irrelevant information about him/her. c. Incorrect Reactance occurs when a person does not comply with a request because he/she feels that the request violates his/her sense of personal freedom. d. CORRECT The overjustification hypothesis predicts that a person's internal motivation to perform a behavior will be weakened when he/she is provided with external reinforcement for engaging in the behavior. The correct answer is: overjustification hypothesis

Question 152

When Rosenhan's (1973) pseudopatients were admitted to a mental health facility after reporting that they were "hearing voices," they were: Select one: A. recognized as being sane by most staff members but not by the other patients. B. recognized as being sane by the other patients more often than by the staff members. C. not recognized as being sane by the staff members or patients until they stopped faking their symptoms. D. not recognized as being sane by the staff members or patients even after they stopped faking their symptoms.

Answer 152

Rosenhan and seven of his assistants had themselves admitted to different mental health facilities by complaining of "hearing voices." Once they were admitted, they stopped faking their symptoms. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Nearly 1/3 of the patients identified the pseudopatients as sane, but the hospital staff members diagnosed all but one of the pseudopatients as schizophrenic. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: recognized as being sane by the other patients more often than by the staff members.

Question 153

The base rate fallacy refers to the tendency to: Select one: A. believe that a particular chance event is affected by the occurrence of previous events. B. overestimate the link between two events that are unrelated or only slightly related. C. focus on a specific case rather than general information when reaching a conclusion or making a judgment. D. overestimate the number of people who share one's beliefs, opinions, and attitudes.

Answer 153

As its name implies, the base rate fallacy occurs when a person ignores base rate information. a. Incorrect This answer describes the gambler's fallacy. b. Incorrect This describes the phenomenon known as the illusory correlation. c. CORRECT The tendency to ignore base rate (general) information and to focus, instead, on a specific case is referred to as the base rate fallacy. d. Incorrect This answer describes the false consensus bias. The correct answer is: focus on a specific case rather than general information when reaching a conclusion or making a judgment.

Question 154

You are convinced that you are psychic because you're able to predict when close friends are going to call you on the phone. As a result, you always notice the times when your predictions are correct but ignore those times when they're not. This is an example of which of the following? Select one: A. correspondence bias B. confirmation bias C. self-fulfilling prophecy effect D. post hoc fallacy

Answer 154

In the situation described in this question, you are noticing only those phone calls that confirm your belief about your psychic ability. a. Incorrect The correspondence bias is another name for the fundamental attribution bias, which is the tendency to attribute the behaviors of others to dispositional factors. b. CORRECT This situation illustrates the confirmation bias, which predicts that we're most likely to pay attention to events that confirm our preconceptions. c. Incorrect The self-fulfilling prophecy effect occurs when a person's expectations alter the behaviors of the targets of those expectations. d. Incorrect The post hoc fallacy occurs when we conclude that Event A caused Event B simply because Event A preceded Event B. The correct answer is: confirmation bias

Question 155

Which of the following emphasizes the role of the costs and rewards of a relationship on a person's decision to stay in the relationship? Select one: A. gain-loss theory B. expectancy theory C. social exchange theory D. social comparison theory

Answer 155

For the licensing exam, you'll want to be familiar with all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question. a. Incorrect Gain-loss theory (also known as the gain-loss effect) refers to the tendency to like or be most attracted to people who initially evaluate us negatively but subsequently evaluate us in positive ways. b. Incorrect Expectancy theory predicts that motivation is the result of three beliefs - expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. c. CORRECT As its name implies, social exchange theory is based on the premise that human behavior is affected by the exchange of rewards between actors. Specifically, it predicts that the decision to stay in a relationship depends on the balance of costs and rewards: When a person believes that costs exceed rewards, the person will leave the relationship, but when the person believes that rewards exceed the costs, he/she will stay in the relationship. d. Incorrect Social comparison theory predicts that people make judgments about themselves by comparing their behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs to those of other people. The correct answer is: social exchange theory

Question 156

The results of research on the jigsaw classroom are consistent with which of the following? Select one: A. the results of Sherif's Robber's Cave study B. the results of Zimbardo's deindividuation study C. the predictions of Berkowitz's frustration-aggression hypothesis D. the predictions of Ajzen and Fishbein's theory of reasoned action

Answer 156

In a jigsaw classroom, students work together in teams to complete an assignment (i.e., to achieve a superordinate goal). The research has found that the jigsaw classroom helps reduce hostilities related to racial, ethnic, or cultural differences. a. CORRECT Sherif found that cooperation in achieving a superordinate goal reduced hostility between groups of boys. b. Incorrect Zimbardo's deindividuation study found that people are more willing to act in antisocial ways when they can do so anonymously. c. Incorrect Berkowitz found that frustration may lead to aggression, especially in the presence of aggressive cues. d. Incorrect According to the theory of reasoned action, people consider two factors when deciding whether to behave in certain ways: their attitude toward the behavior and the subjective norms that apply to the situation. The correct answer is: the results of Sherif's Robber's Cave study

Question 157

According to Sherif and Hovland's (1961) social judgment theory, a person's latitudes of rejection, non-commitment, and acceptance are affected by which of the following? Select one: A. the persons level of involvement with the topic addressed by the persuasive message B. the persons perceptions about the consequences of altering his/her opinion or behavior C. the persons self-efficacy beliefs D. the persons level of cognitive dissonance

Answer 157

Social judgment theory (Sherif and Hovland, 1961) distinguishes between three "categories of judgment" that determine our susceptibility to persuasion: Latitude of acceptance Latitude of non-commitment Latitude of rejection Additional information on social judgment theory is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. CORRECT Social judgment theory predicts that the size of the latitudes of acceptance, non-commitment, and rejection are affected by the individual's level of ego-involvement (i.e., the extent to which the person is personally involved with the topic addressed by the persuasive message). When the individual's ego-involvement is high, his/her latitude of rejection is wide. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: the persons level of involvement with the topic addressed by the persuasive message

Question 158

In general, a communicator of a persuasive message will produce the greatest amount of attitude change in a listener when the communicator is _____ in credibility and the discrepancy between the listener's initial position and the position advocated by the communicator is _____. Select one: A. high; moderate B. high; small C. low; large D. low; moderate

Answer 158

The ability of a communicator to change a listener's attitude depends on several factors including the communicator's credibility and the amount of discrepancy between the listener's initial attitude and the attitude advocated by the communicator. a. CORRECT The optimal combination of communicator credibility and communication discrepancy for attitude change is a highly credible communicator and a moderate level of discrepancy. With regard to the discrepancy, a small discrepancy will not require much change in attitude on the part of the listener, while a large discrepancy is likely to produce no change. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: high; moderate

Question 159

According to Berscheid's (1991) emotion-in-relationships model, strong emotions in romantic relationships occur when: Select one: A. interactions between partners deviate from expected patterns. B. interactions between partners become coercive. C. a partner's internal working model of intimate relationships is not effective. D. a partners illusions (unrealistic expectations) about romantic relationships are contradicted.

Answer 159

Berscheid's emotion-in-relationships model (ERM) is one of several models that have been proposed as explanations for affect in close relationships. a. CORRECT Berscheid's model proposes that strong positive or negative emotions occur when there is a disruption in interpersonal scripts - i.e., when a partner violates expectations regarding important couple or personal goals. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect Although ERM addresses the violation of expectations, it does not attribute affect only to a violation of unrealistic expectations, so this is not the best answer of those given. The correct answer is: interactions between partners deviate from expected patterns.

Question 160

In the context of attitude change, "inoculation" is a method for: Select one: A. reducing the likelihood that a listener will be persuaded by a message. B. increasing a listener's attention to a message. C. reducing the likelihood that a listener will forget a message. D. increasing the attractiveness of the person delivering the message.

Answer 160

The notion of inoculation was "borrowed" from the public health practice of giving injections to prevent illnesses. a. CORRECT The purpose of inoculation is to reduce a listener's susceptibility to a persuasive message. It involves three steps: warning the listener of the impending persuasive message; making a weak attack against the listener's position; and having the listener actively defend his/her position. b. Incorrect See explanation for response a. c. Incorrect See explanation for response a. d. Incorrect See explanation for response a. The correct answer is: reducing the likelihood that a listener will be persuaded by a message.

Question 161

Sherif and Hovland's (1961) social judgment theory is useful for understanding which of the following? Select one: A. interpersonal attraction B. attitude change C. attribution of cause D. impression formation

Answer 161

Social judgment theory distinguishes between three "categories of judgment" that determine our susceptibility to persuasion: Latitude of acceptance Latitude of non-commitment Latitude of rejection a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Social judgment theory predicts that we are most likely to be persuaded (i.e., to change our attitude) when the position advocated by a message is within our latitude of acceptance. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: attitude change

Question 162

Raymond R. and his wife have not been getting along for some time, and Raymond has recently started thinking about seeking a divorce. The problem with getting a divorce is that it will require Raymond to either divide the business he and his wife have or to sell his share of the business to her, neither of which appeals to him. The problem with staying with his wife is that Raymond will have to continue putting up with her nagging and his feeling that he has no "life of his own." Assuming that Raymond is experiencing a "double approach-avoidance conflict," it is most likely that he will do which of the following in the near future? Select one: A. choose one of his two options and feel confident that it was the correct one B. vacillate between the two options, first choosing one and then the other C. antagonize his wife in order to force her to make the decision to get a divorce D. decide that "no one is really satisfied anyway" and, consequently, stay with his wife

Answer 162

Four types of conflict have been distinguished by researchers interested in intraindividual conflict: Avoidance-avoidance Approach-approach Approach-avoidance Double approach-avoidance Answer B is correct: A double approach-avoidance conflict produces vacillation between the two courses of action. Even if you're not familiar with research on intraindividual conflict, you've probably had a personal experience that could help you understand why this is the correct answer. a. Incorrect This is the more likely outcome in an approach-approach conflict. c. Incorrect This is a possibility, of course, but is not consistent with predictions about the outcome of a double approach-avoidance conflict. d. Incorrect This is also not consistent with predictions about the outcome of an avoidance-avoidance conflict. The correct answer is: vacillate between the two options, first choosing one and then the other

Question 163

In a research study, college students who preferred brown bread were more likely than those who preferred white bread to say that other students prefer brown bread (Mullen et al., 1985). This finding is consistent with the predictions of which of the following? Select one: A. illusory correlation B. actor-observer effect C. fundamental attribution bias D. false consensus bias

Answer 163

For the exam, you want to be familiar with all of the phenomena listed in the answers to this question, and these are described in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response d. b. Incorrect See explanation for response d. c. Incorrect See explanation for response d. d. CORRECT The false consensus bias is the tendency to believe that other people share our attitudes and beliefs. The correct answer is: false consensus bias

Question 164

``` Solomon Asch (1958) found that a research participant's conformity to group norms was substantially reduced when: Select one: ``` A. the stimulus (task) was unambiguous. B. only one of the group members (confederates) deviated from the group norm. C. the participant was not directly pressured (requested) to conform to the group norm. D. the discrepancy between the groups judgment and the participants judgment increased over time.

Answer 164

In Asch's (1958) studies, group members (participant and confederates) were shown a vertical line and asked to indicate which of three other lines it matched in terms of length. Results indicated that when the confederates offered their estimates first, the participant conformed to the confederates' estimates about one-third of the time. a. Incorrect Asch's studies used an unambiguous stimulus (a vertical line), and the lack of ambiguity did not eliminate conformity to the group norm. b. CORRECT The participant was more likely to conform when the confederates were unanimous in their judgment of the line length than when even one confederate deviated from the group norm. c. Incorrect Participants in Asch's study were not directly pressured (required) to conform to the group norm. d. Incorrect An increase in the discrepancy over time actually increased the likelihood that the participant would conform to the group norm. The correct answer is: only one of the group members (confederates) deviated from the group norm.

Question 165

A person with symbolic racist views is least likely to oppose which of the following? Select one: A. affirmative action B. school integration C. welfare D. bilingual election ballots

Answer 165

Symbolic racism (Sears, 1988) represents a combination of anti-black affect and conservative values, especially individualism. Note that this question is asking which type of opposition is not characteristic of symbolic racism. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT In contrast to "old-fashioned" racism, symbolic racism is characterized by more subtle forms of prejudice and discrimination. A person with symbolic racist views is not likely to oppose school integration because doing so represents an overt form of racism. However, he/she is likely to oppose other efforts designed to promote equality or benefit members of minority groups - e.g., affirmative action, welfare, and bilingual ballots - on the ground that they violate traditional American values. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: school integration

Question 166

Which of the following is true about a person who is faced with an approach-avoidance conflict? Select one: A. The closer the person gets to his/her goal, the stronger the desire to approach it. B. The closer the person gets to his/her goal, the stronger the desire to avoid it. C. Regardless of his/her proximity to the goal, the persons desire to avoid the goal is stronger than his/her desire to approach it. D. Regardless of his/her proximity to the goal, the persons desire to approach it is equal to the desire to avoid it.

Answer 166

Lewin (1931) and Miller (1944) distinguished between four motivational conflicts: Approach-approach Avoidance-avoidance Approach-avoidance Double approach-avoidance Additional information about these conflicts is provided in the Social Psychology chapter of the written study materials. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT The approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a goal has both positive and negative aspects. This kind of conflict is difficult to resolve because, as a person moves closer to the goal, the desire to avoid it becomes stronger and, as the person moves away from the goal, the desire to approach it increases. c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: The closer the person gets to his/her goal, the stronger the desire to avoid it.

Question 167

Schachter's (1959) conclusion that "misery loves miserable company" is most consistent with the predictions of which of the following? Select one: A. social impact theory B. the overjustification hypothesis C. the notion of psychological reactance D. social comparison theory

Answer 167

Schachter found that, when fearful participants who were anxious about the study they were about to participate in were given a choice of waiting for the study alone or with another anxious participant, they preferred to wait with other another anxious participant. However, if anxious participants were given a choice of waiting alone or with a non-anxious individual, they chose to wait alone. a. Incorrect Social impact theory predicts that the force to comply is determined by the strength, immediacy, and number of sources of social influence that are present. b. Incorrect The overjustification hypothesis predicts that providing a person with external rewards for engaging in a behavior diminishes the person's internal motivation for doing so. c. Incorrect Psychological reactance is the tendency to do the opposite of what is requested because one feels the request is violating one's freedom-of-choice. d. CORRECT Social comparison theory predicts that we reduce uncertainty about our feelings, opinions, etc. by observing those of others in similar circumstances. The correct answer is: social comparison theory

Question 168

Zimbardo's (1970) deindividuation model applies to which of the following? Select one: A. cooperative behavior B. aggressive behavior C. sexual prejudice D. self-attributions

Answer 168

Zimbardo's deindividuation model addresses the effects of anonymity on the likelihood that a person will act aggressively. a. Incorrect See explanation for response b. b. CORRECT Zimbardo found that people were more likely to act aggressively when participating in a group when they could do so anonymously (i.e., when their identity had been disguised). c. Incorrect See explanation for response b. d. Incorrect See explanation for response b. The correct answer is: aggressive behavior

Question 169

People who frequently view violent shows on television are most likely to: Select one: A. exhibit high levels of empathy for the victims of violence. B. judge aggressive retaliation as unacceptable and unjustifiable. C. report that they have been the victims of unprovoked violence. D. overestimate the likelihood that they will be a victim of violence.

Answer 169

Most of the research on media violence has produced results that are consistent with social learning theory - i.e., that we acquire attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through observation. a. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. Long-term exposure to media violence has been linked to a decrease in both empathy and concern for the victims of violence. b. Incorrect This is also the opposite of what is true. People who are often exposed to media violence are more likely to judge aggressive retaliation more positively than do people who are infrequently (or not) exposed to media violence. c. Incorrect Although long-term exposure to violence has been linked to a tendency to overestimate one's risk for being a victim of violence, it has not been linked to an increase in reported rates of being a victim. d. CORRECT The research has confirmed that long-term exposure to media violence is associated with a tendency to overestimate the amount of violence in society as well as the likelihood of being a victim of violence. The correct answer is: overestimate the likelihood that they will be a victim of violence.

Question 170

People who frequently view violent shows on television are most likely to: Select one: A. exhibit high levels of empathy for the victims of violence. B. judge aggressive retaliation as unacceptable and unjustifiable. C. report that they have been the victims of unprovoked violence. D. overestimate the likelihood that they will be a victim of violence.

Answer 170

Most of the research on media violence has produced results that are consistent with social learning theory - i.e., that we acquire attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through observation. a. Incorrect This is the opposite of what is true. Long-term exposure to media violence has been linked to a decrease in both empathy and concern for the victims of violence. b. Incorrect This is also the opposite of what is true. People who are often exposed to media violence are more likely to judge aggressive retaliation more positively than do people who are infrequently (or not) exposed to media violence. c. Incorrect Although long-term exposure to violence has been linked to a tendency to overestimate one's risk for being a victim of violence, it has not been linked to an increase in reported rates of being a victim. d. CORRECT The research has confirmed that long-term exposure to media violence is associated with a tendency to overestimate the amount of violence in society as well as the likelihood of being a victim of violence. The correct answer is: overestimate the likelihood that they will be a victim of violence.