Exam 2 Info - Slides Flashcards
(188 cards)
1
Q
skeletal muscle tissue: attached to ... and ... .... ... (i.e. conscious control) powerful
A
bones; skin;
striated;
voluntary
2
Q
cardiac muscle tissue:
only in the ..
…
…
A
heart
striated
involuntary
3
Q
smooth muscle tissue: in the walls of ... (e..g stomach, urinary bladder, and airways) not ... ... ... to act compared to striated muscle
A
hollow organs;
striated;
involuntary;
slower
4
Q
special characteristics of muscle tissue:
… (… or …): ability to receive and respond to stimuli
…: ability to shorten when stimulated
…: ability to be stretched
…: ability to recoil to resting length
A
excitability; responsiveness; irritability;
contractility;
extensibility;
elasticity
5
Q
muscle functions: ... of bones/fluids (e.g. blood) maintaining ... and ... ... ... (especially skeletal muscle)
A
movement;
posture; body position;
stabilizing joints;
heat generation
6
Q
(skeletal muscle) each muscle is served by one …, one …, and one or more …
A
artery; nerve; veins
7
Q
(skeletal muscle)
connective tissue sheaths of skeletal muscle:
…: dense regular connective tissue surrounding entire muscle
…: fibrous connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle fibers)
…: fine areolar connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber
A
epimysium;
perimysium;
endomysium
8
Q
(skeletal muscle)
muscles attach:
directly – … of muscle is fused to the … of bone or … of cartilage
A
epimysium; periosteum; perichondrium
9
Q
(skeletal muscle)
muscles attach:
indirectly - connective tissue wrappings extend beyond the muscle as a … or …
A
ropelike tendon; sheetlike aponeurosis
10
Q
(skeletal muscle)
periosteum: double layered connective tissue that … and … bone
perichondrium: fibrous, connective membrane covering the …. of … structures
A
covers; nourishes;
external surface; cartilaginous
11
Q
(skeletal muscle) skeletal muscle fiber: ... cell 10-100 micrometers in diameter, up to 30 cm long multiple ... many ...
A
cylindrical;
peripheral nuclei;
mitochondria
12
Q
(skeletal muscle)
skeletal muscle fiber:
… for glycogen storage, … for oxygen storage
A
glycosomes; myoglobin
13
Q
(skeletal muscle) skeletal muscle fiber: also contain: ... ... ...
A
myofibrils;
sarcoplasmic reticulum;
T tubules
14
Q
(skeletal muscle)
myofibrils:
densely packed, … elements
about …% of cell volume
A
rodlike; 80
15
Q
(skeletal muscle) myofibrils: exhibit ...: perfectly aligned repeating series of dark A bands and light I bands A bands = ... filaments I bands = ... filaments
A
striations;
myosin thick;
actin thin
16
Q
(skeletal muscle)
sarcomere:
smallest …. (… unit) of a muscle fiber
the region of a myofibril between two successive … (…)
composed of … and … filaments
A
contractile unit; functional unit;
Z discs; alpha-actinin;
thick; thin
17
Q
(skeletal muscle) …: run the entire length of an an A band (dark)
…: run the length of the I band (light) and partway into the A band
A
thick filaments; thin filaments;
18
Q
(skeletal muscle) …: coin shaped sheet of proteins that anchors the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another (protein is …)
…: line of protein … that holds adjacent thick filaments together
A
Z disc; alpha-actinin
M line; myomesin
19
Q
(thick filament)
composed of the protein myosin
myosin tails contain: 2 interwoven, …
A
heavy polypeptide chains
20
Q
(thick filament) myosin heads contain: 2 smaller, ... that act as cross bridges during contraction binding sites for ... of thin filaments binding sites for ... ... enzymes
A
light polypeptide chains;
actin;
ATP;
ATPase
21
Q
(thin filament)
twisted double strand of fibrous protein … (…)
A
F actin; filamentous
22
Q
(thin filament)
F actin consists of … subunits
A
G (globular) actin
23
Q
(thin filament)
G actin bears active sites for … attachment during contraction
… and …: regulatory proteins bound to actin
A
myosin head;
tropomyosin; troponin
24
Q
(tropomyosin and troponin) several regulatory proteins are also present in the thin filament
two strands of …, a rod-shaped protein, spiral about the actin core and help … it. Successive … molecules are arranged end to end along the actin filaments, and in a relaxed muscle fiber, they block … on actin so that the myosin heads cannot …
A
tropomyosin; stiffen; tropomyosin; myosin binding sites; bind to the thin filaments
25
(tropomyosin and troponin)
the other major protein in the thin filament, ..., is a three polypeptide complex. one of these polypeptides (...) is an ... subunit that binds to actin; another (...) binds to tropomyosin and helps ... on actin
the third (...) binds ...
Both troponin and tropomyosin help control the myosin-actin interactions involved in contraction
troponin;
Tnl; inhibitory;
TnT; position it;
TnC; calcium ions;
26
in the center of the sarcomere, the thick filaments lack ...
These are present only in areas of ...
myosin heads;
| myosin-actin overlap
27
(sarcoplasmic reticulum) network of ... surrounding each myofibril
pairs of terminal cisternae form ...
functions in the regulation of ... levels
smooth endoplasmic reticulum;
perpendicular cross channels;
intracellular Ca2+
28
(T tubules) continuous with the ....
penetrate the cell's interior at the ...
associate with the paired terminal cisternae to form ... that encircle each sarcomere
sarcolemma;
A band- I band junction;
triads
29
(triad relationships)
T tubules ... deep into muscle fiber
... protrude into the intermembrane space from T tubule and SR cisternae membranes
T tubule proteins: ...
...: gated channels that regulate calcium release from the SR cisternae
conduct impulses;
integral proteins;
voltage sensors;
SR foot proteins
30
(contraction)
the ...
does not necessarily cause ... of the fiber
generation of force; shortening
31
(contraction) shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on the thin filaments ...
exceeds forces opposing shortening
32
(sliding filament model of contraction) in the relaxed state, thin and thick filaments ... only slightly
during contraction, myosin heads bind to ..., ..., and ... again, to propel the thin filaments toward the ...
overlap;
| actin; detach; bind; M line
33
(sliding filament model of contraction)
| as H zones shorten and disappear, ... shorten, ... shorten, and the ...shortens
sarcomeres; muscle cells; whole muscle
34
(requirements for skeletal muscle contraction) activation: neural stimulation at a ...
excitation-contraction coupling:
generation and propagation of an ... along the ...; final trigger: a brief rise in ... levels
neuromuscular junction;
action potential; sarcolemma;
intracellular calcium
35
(events at the neuromuscular junction) skeletal muscles are stimulated by ...
axons of motor neurons travel from the ... via nerves to ...
somatic motor neurons;
central nervous system;
skeletal muscles
36
(events at the neuromuscular junction) each axon forms ... as it enters a muscle
each axon ending forms a ... with a single muscle fiber
several branches;
| neuromuscular junction
37
(neuromuscular junction) situated midway along the length of a ...
axon terminal and muscle fiber are separated by a gel-filled space called the ...
muscle fiber;
| synaptic cleft
38
(neuromuscular junction) synaptic vesicles of axon terminal contain the neurotransmitter ...
junctional folds of the sarcolemma contain ...
acetylcholine (ACh);
| ACh receptors
39
(neuromuscular junction)
nerve impulse arrives at ...
ACh is released and binds with receptors on the ...
electrical events lead to the generation of an ...
sarcolemma;
| action potential
40
(destruction of acetylcholine) ACh effects are quickly terminated by the enzyme ...
Break ACh into ... and ...
acetylcholinesterase;
| choline; acetic acid
41
(destruction of acetylcholine)
choline will get recycled back to ... in the NMJ ...
prevents continued ... in the absence of additional stimulation
ACh; axon terminal;
| muscle fiber contraction
42
(events in generation of an action potential)
1. local depolarization (...):
ACh binding opens ...
simultaneous diffusion of ... and ...
end plate potential;
chemically (ligand) gated ion channels;
Na+ (inward); K+ (outward)
43
(events in generation of an action potential)
more ... diffuses, so the interior of the sarcolemma becomes ...
... - ...
Na+; less negative;
| local depolarization. - end plate potential
44
(events in generation of an action potential)
generation and propagation of an action potential:
... spreads to adjacent membrane areas
... open
Na+ influx decreases the membrane voltage toward a ...
if threshold is reached, an ... is generated
end plate potential
voltage-gated Na+ channels;
critical threshold;
action potential
45
(events in generation of an action potential)
local depolarization wave continues to spread, changing the .... of the sarcolemma
... open in the adjacent patch, causing it to depolarize to threshold
permeability;
| voltage-regulated sodium channels
46
(events in generation of an action potential)
repolarization:
sodium channels close and ... open
... rapidly restores the resting polarity
fiber cannot be stimulated and is in a ... until repolarization is complete
ionic conditions of the resting state are restored by the ...
voltage-gated K+ channels;
K+ efflux;
refractory period;
Na+-K+ pump
47
(excitation contraction (E-C) coupling) sequence of events by which transmission of an AP along the sarcolemma leads to ...
... period: time when E-C coupling events occur; time between ... and the beginning of ...
sliding of the myofilaments;
| latent; AP initiation; contraction
48
(excitation contraction (E-C) coupling) AP is propagated along the sarcomere to ...
voltage-sensitive proteins stimulate ... from SR --> ... is necessary for contraction
T tubules; Ca2+ release; Ca2+
49
(role of calcium in contraction) at low intracellular Ca2+ concentration:
... blocks the active sites on actin
.... cannot attach to actin
muscle fiber ...
tropomyosin;
myosin heads;
relaxes
50
(role of calcium in contraction) at higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations:
calcium binds to ..., which changes shape and moves ... away from active sites
events of the ... occur
troponin; tropomyosin; cross bridge cycle
51
(role of calcium in contraction)
at higher intracellular Ca2+ concs:
when nervous stimulation ceases, ... is pumped back into the ... and contraction ends
Ca2+; SR
52
(cross bridge cycle) continuous as long as the ... and ... are present
... - high energy myosin head attaches to thin filament
... - myosin head pivots and pulls thin filament toward M line
Ca2+ signal; adequate ATP;
cross bridge formation;
working (power) stroke
53
(cross bridge cycle)
...: ATP attaches to myosin head and the cross bridge detaches
... - energy from ... cocks the myosin head into the high-energy state
cross bridge detachment;
"cocking" of the myosin head;
hydrolysis of ATP
54
(muscle metabolism) ... only source used directly for contractile activities --> move and detach ..., ... pumps in SR, return of ... and ... after excitation-contraction coupling
available stores of ATP depleted in ... seconds
ATP; cross bridges; calcium; Na+; K+;
| 4-6
55
```
(muscle metabolism)
ATP regenerated by:
1. direct ... of ADP by ...
2. ... (... --> ...)
3. ...
```
phosphorylation; creatine phosphate (CP);
anaerobic pathway; glycolysis; lactic acid;
aerobic respiration
56
(anaerobic pathway)
glycolysis: does not require oxygen
glucose degraded to ... molecules
normally enter mitochondria --> ...
2 pyruvic acid;
| aerobic respiration
57
(anaerobic pathway) at 70% maximum contractile activity:
bulging muscles ...; ... is impaired
pyruvic acid converted to ...
compress blood vessels; oxygen delivery;
| lactic acid
58
(anaerobic pathway) lactic acid:
diffuses into bloodstream
used as fuel by ..., ..., and ...
converted back into ... or ... by liver
liver; kidneys; heart;
| pyruvic acid; glucose
59
(anaerobic pathway) lactic acid:
| anaerobic respiration yields only ... as much ATP as aerobic respiration, but produces ATP ... times faster
5%; 2.5
60
(aerobic pathway) produces 95% of ATP during ... and ...; ...
rest and light to moderate exercise; slow
61
(aerobic pathway) series of chemical reactions that require ...; occur in ...
breaks glucose into ..., ..., and large amount of ...
oxygen; mitochondria;
| CO2; H2O; ATP
62
(aerobic pathway) fuels- stored ..., then bloodborne ..., ... from glycolysis, and ...
glycogen; glucose; pyruvic acid; free fatty acids
63
...: length of time muscle contracts using aerobic pathways
| ...: point at which muscle metabolism converts to anaerobic
aerobic endurance;
| anaerobic threshold
64
(muscle fatigue) physiological inability to ... despite ...
contract; continued stimulation
65
(muscle fatigue)
occurs when:
... (K+, Ca2+, Pi) interfere with E-C coupling
prolonged exercise damages ... and interferes with ... and ...
ionic imbalances;
| SR; Ca2+ regulation and release
66
(muscle fatigue) total lack of ATP occurs rarely, during states of ..., and causes ... (continuous contractions)
continuous contraction; contractures
67
(excess postexercise oxygen consumption) to return muscle to resting state
.. reserves replenished
... converted to ...
... stores replaced
... and ... reserves replenished
all require extra oxygen; occur post exercise
oxygen;
lactic acid; pyruvic acid;
glycogen;
ATP; creatine phosphate
68
(heat production during muscle activity) about ...% of energy released in muscle activity useful as work
remaining energy given off as ...
dangerous heat levels prevented by ... from skin and sweating
... - result of muscle contractions to generate heat when cold
40;
heat;
radiation of heat;
shivering
69
```
(blood composition)
blood: a fluid connective tissue composted of
...
formed elements: 3 types
... (..)
... (...)
...
```
plasma;
erythrocytes; RBCs
leukocytes; WBCs
platelets
70
(blood composition)
....: percent of blood volume that is RBCs
...% +- ...% for males
...% +- ...% for females
hematocrit;
47; 5;
42; 5
71
(blood composition)
hematocrit:
...: least dense component, 55% of whole blood
...: leukocytes and platelets, <1% of whole blood
...: 45% of whole blood, most dense component
plasma;
buffy coat;
erythrocytes
72
(physical characteristics and volume of blood)
sticky, opaque fluid
color scarlet to dark red
pH ...-...
38 degrees C
about 8% of body weight
average volume: ... L for males, and ... L for females
7.35- 7.45;
| 5-6; 4-5
73
(functions of blood) 1. distribution of:
... and ... to body cells
... to the lungs and kidneys for elimination
... from endocrine organs to target organs
oxygen; nutrients;
metabolic wastes;
hormones
74
(functions of blood)
2. regulation of:
... by ... and ...
body temperature; absorbing and distributing heat
75
(functions of blood)
regulation of:
normal ... using ...
adequate ... in the circulatory system
pH; buffers;
| fluid volume
76
(functions of blood) 3. protection against:
| ... --> ... and ... initiate clot formation
blood loss; plasma proteins; platelets
77
```
(functions of blood) 3. protection against:
infection:
...
...
... defend against foreign invaders
```
antibodies;
complement proteins
WBCs
78
(blood plasma)
90% ...
proteins are mostly produced by the ...
water;
| liver
79
(blood plasma)
proteins:
60% ... - produced by the liver, acts as a carrier molecule to shuttle certain molecules through circulation - very important ...
36% ... (... and ...) - important in molecular transport of ions and antibodies
4% ... - involved in blood clotting
albumin; blood buffer
globulins; beta and gamma;
fibrinogen
80
(blood plasma)
nitrogenous-by-products of metabolism: ..., ..., ...
nutrients: ..., ..., ...
lactic acid; urea; creatinine
| glucose; carbs; amino acids
81
(blood plasma)
electrolytes: ..., ..., ..., ..., ...
respiratory gases: ... and ...
...
sodium; potassium; calcium; chloride; HCO3-;
oxygen and CO2;
hormones
82
(formed elements) only ... are complete cells
RBCs have no ... or ...
platelets are....
WBCs;
nuclei; organelles;
cell fragments
83
(formed elements) most formed elements survive in the bloodstream for only a ...
most blood cells originate in ... and do not ...
few days;
| bone marrow; divide
84
(erythrocytes) ... discs, ..., essentially no organelles
| filled with ... for gas transport
biconcave; anucleate;
| hemoglobin (Hb)
85
(erythrocytes) contain the plasma membrane protein ... and other proteins --> provide ... to change shape as necessary
are the major factor contributing to blood ...
spectrin; flexibility;
| viscosity
86
(erythrocytes)
structural characteristics contribute to ...
biconcave shape -- huge ... relative to ...
>97% ... (not counting water)
gas transport;
| surface area; volume; hemoglobin
87
(erythrocytes) structural characteristics contribute to gas transport:
no ...; ATP production is ...; no ... is used in the generation of ATP
mitochondria; anaerobic; oxygen
88
(erythrocytes) RBCs are dedicated to ...
| hemoglobin binds ... with ...
respiratory gas transport;
| reversibly; oxygen
89
(erythrocytes) hemoglobin structure
protein ...: two ... and two ... chains
.... pigment bonded to each globin chain
globin; alpha; beta;
| heme
90
(erythrocytes) ... atom in each heme can bind to one oxygen molecule
each Hb molecule can transport ... oxygens
iron;
| four
91
(hemoglobin structure) ... composed of 4 polypeptide chains: two alpha and two beta chains
... pigment bonded to each globin chain (gives blood red color)
heme's central ... atom binds one oxygen
each Hb molecule can transport ...
each RBC contains ... Hb molecules
```
globin;
heme;
iron;
four oxygen;
250 million
```
92
(Hemoglobin) oxygen loading in the lungs, produces ... (ruby red)
oxygen unloading in the ... --> produces .. or ... (dark red)
oxyhemoglobin;
tissues;
deoxyhemoglobin; reduced hemoglobin
93
(Hemoglobin) CO2 loading in the tissues
| produces ... (carries 20% of CO2 in the blood)
carbaminohemoglobin
94
.... (...): blood cell formation
| occurs in ... of axial skeleton, ... and ... of humerus and femur
hematopoiesis; hemopoiesis; red bone marrow; girdles and proximal epiphyses
95
(hematopoiesis) ... (hematopoietic stem cells):
give rise to all formed elements
... and ... push the cell toward a specific pathway of blood cell development
hemocytoblasts;
| hormones; growth factors
96
(hematopoiesis) new blood cells enter ...: ...
blood sinusoids; wide blood capillaries
97
...: red blood cell production
erythropoiesis
98
(erythropoiesis) a ... is transformed into a ..., which develop into early ...
hemocytoblast; proerythroblast; erythroblasts
99
(erythropoiesis)
1. phases in development:
... synthesis
...
ejection of the ... and formation of ..., which then become mature ...
ribosome;
hemoglobin accumulation;
nucleus; reticulocytes;
erythrocytes
100
(erythropoiesis)
hemocytoblast becomes committed cell as ...
phase 1 is ribosome synthesis, known as ... erythroblast
phase 2 is hemoglobin accumulation, known as ... erythroblast, which then becomes an .... erythroblast
in phase 3, nucleus is ejected, forming the ... that then matures into erythrocyte
```
proerythroblast;
basophilic;
polychromatic;
orthochromatic;
reticulocyte
```
101
(erythropoiesis) regulation of erythropoiesis:
too few RBCs leads to ...
too many RBCs increases ...
tissue hypoxia; blood viscosity
102
(erythropoiesis) balance between RBC production and destruction depends on :
... controls: ...
adequate supplies of ..., ..., and ...
hormonal; EPO;
| iron; amino acids; B vitamins
103
(erythropoiesis)
hormonal control:
... (EPO): ... play direct role in erythropoiesis
erythropoietin; kidneys
104
(erythropoiesis) hormonal control through EPO:
direct stimulus for erythropoiesis by ... sensitive enzymes are unable to carry out their normal functions of degrading an intracellular signaling molecule called ...: ....
this causes ...
O2;
HIF: hypoxia-inducible factor;
increase in HIF levels
105
(erythropoiesis) EPO is released by the ... in response to ...
as HIF increases, ... also increases
kidneys; hypoxia;
| EPO
106
(erythropoiesis) causes of hypoxia:
... or increased ... reduces RBC numbers
... (e.g. iron deficiency)
reduced availability of ... (e.g. high altitudes)
hemorrhage; RBC destruction;
insufficient hemoglobin;
oxygen
107
(erythropoiesis) effects of EPO:
more rapid maturation of ...
increased circulating ... count in 1-2 days
.... also enhances EPO production, resulting in higher ... in males
committed bone marrow cells;
reticulocyte;
testosterone; RBC counts
108
fate and destruction of erythrocytes:
life span: ... - ... days
old RBCs become fragile, and Hb begins to ...
100; 120; degenerate
109
fate and destruction of erythrocytes:
| ... engulf dying RBCs in the ... -- often called the RBC graveyard
macrophages; spleen
110
fate and destruction of erythrocytes:
... and ... are separated:
... is salvaged for reuse
heme; globin;
| iron
111
fate and destruction of erythrocytes:
| heme is degraded to the yellow pigment ..., which the ... secretes in bile into the intestines
bilirubin; liver
112
fate and destruction of erythrocytes:
degraded pigment leaves the body in feces as ... (brown color)
globin is metabolized into ... - released into circulation
stercobilin;
| amino acids
113
iron from broken down hemoglobin is stored as ..., ...
| it is then bound to ... and released to blood from liver as needed for erythropoiesis
ferritin; hemosiderin; transferrin
114
(erythrocyte disorders) ...: blood has abnormally low oxygen carrying capacity
a ... rather than a disease itself
anemia; sign
115
(erythrocyte disorders) anemia:
blood oxygen levels cannot support ...
accompanied by ..., ..., ..., and ...
normal metabolism;
| fatigue; paleness; shortness of breath; chills
116
(causes of anemia)
1. insufficient ...:
...: acute or chronic loss of blood
...: RBCs rupture prematurely; due to mismatched blood, certain bacterial and parasitic infections
...: destruction/inhibition of red bone marrow: drugs, chemicals, ionizing radiation and viruses
erythrocytes;
hemorrhagic anemia;
hemolytic anemia;
aplastic anemia
117
(causes of anemia) 2. low ... content:
... anemia:
secondary result of ... anemia or inadequate intake of ... foods or impaired ...
hemoglobin;
iron-deficiency;
hemorrhagic; iron-containing; iron absorption
118
(causes of anemia) ...:
deficiency of vitamin B12
lack of ... (found in the stomach lining) needed for absorption of ...
treated by ... of B12 or application of ... (B12 containing gel)
pernicious anemia;
intrinsic factor; B12;
intramuscular injection;
Nascobal
119
(causes of anemia) sickle-cell anemia:
defective gene codes for ... (...)
one change in an ... of the 146 needed to make this protein causes disease
causes the beta chains to ... under ... conditions, thus forming stiff rods (instead of flexible)
abnormal hemoglobin (HbS);
AA;
link together; low oxygen
120
(causes of anemia) sickle cell anemia:
causes RBCs to become ... shaped in low oxygen situations
upon unloading of O2, RBC ... easily and tend to ... up small blood vessels (very painful)
patients usually get ... to control the condition
sickle;
rupture; clog up;
blood transfusion
121
(causes of anemia) in sickle cell anemia, the change is ... to ..
glutamic acid; valine
122
(erythrocyte disorders) ..: excess of RBCS that increase blood viscoisty
polycythemia
123
(erythrocyte disorders) polycythemia:
results from ... - ...
secondary polycythemia: when less ... is available (...) or when ... production increases
blood ... (in athletes, for ex)
polycythemia vera; bone marrow cancer;
oxygen; high altitude; EPO;
blood doping
124
(leukocytes) make up less than 1 percent of total blood volume
can leave capillaries via ...: slip/squeeze out
move through tissue spaces by ... motion and positive ...
diapedesis;
| ameboid; chemotaxis
125
(leukocytes) WBC count over 11,000/mm^3
| normal response to ... or ...
bacterial; viral invasion
126
granulocytes: ..., ..., and ... (...)
neutrophils; eosinophils; basophils (NEB)
127
```
(granulocytes)
... stain specifically with Wright's stain
.. and ... than RBCs
... nuclei
...
```
cytoplasmic granules;
larger; shorter-lived;
lobed;
phagocytic
128
neutrophils:
most ... WBCs
.... (PMNs)
numerous;
| polymorphonuclear leukocytes
129
neutrophils:
fine granules take up both ... and ... dyes
give the cytoplasm a ... color
granules contain ... or ...
acidic; basic; lilac; hydrolytic enzymes; defensins
130
neutrophils:
very ... - "bacteria slayers"
chemically attracted to sites of ... and active ...
phagocytic; inflammation; phagocytes
131
neutrophils:
| use process called ... to kill -- releases .../... products
respiratory bust; bleach; H2O2
132
eosinophils:
red-staining, ... nuclei
red to crimson (...) coarse, ...-like granules
digest ... that are too large to be phagocytized
bilobed; acidophilic; lysosome;
| parasitic worms;
133
eosinophils:
modulators of the ...
roughly 2-4% of all leukocytes
also have involvement in ... and ...
immune response; allergy; asthma
134
basophils:
... WBCs
large, purplish-black (basophilic) granules contain ...
...: an inflammatory chemical that acts as a ... and attracts other WBCs to inflamed sites
rarest;
| histamine; histamine; vasodilator
135
basophils:
are functionally similar to ... cells
rarest at only .5-1% of total leukocyte population
mast
136
agranulocytes:
... and ...
lack visible ...
have ... or .. shaped nuclei
lymphocytes; monocytes;
cytoplasmic granules;
spherical; kidney-shaped
137
lymphocytes:
large, dark-purple ... nuclei with a thin rim of blue cytoplasm
mostly in ... tissue; few circulate in the blood
crucial to ...
circular; lymphoid; immunity
138
lymphocytes - 2 types:
.... act against virus-infected cells and ... cells
... cells give rise to ... cells, which produce antibodies
T cells; tumor cells;
| B cells; plasma cells
139
...: the largest leukocytes
monocytes
140
monocytes:
abundant pale-blue cytoplasm
dark purple-staining, ... or ... shaped nuclei
U; kidney
141
monocytes:
| leave ..., enter .., and differentiate into ...
circulation; tissues; macrophages
142
monocytes:
| actively ... cells; crucial against ...,, ..., and ...
phagocytic; viruses; intracellular bacterial parasites; chronic infections
143
monocytes;
| activate ... to mount an immune response
lymphocytes
144
leukopoiesis:
production of ...
stimulated by chemical messengers from ... and ...
WBCs; bone marrow; mature WBCs
145
leukopoiesis:
stimulated by chemical messengers:
... (e.g. IL-1, IL-2)
... (CSFs) named for the WBC type they stimulate
interleukins
| colony-stimulating factors
146
leukopoiesis:
| all leukocytes originate from ...: branch into ... (...) and ... (...)
hemocytoblasts;
lymphoid SC; agranulocytes;
myeloid SC; granulocytes
147
... stem cell: same stem cell that produces the erythrocyte lineage
myeloid
148
(leukocyte disorders)
| ...: abnormally low WBC count- ... induced
leukopenia; drug
149
```
(leukocyte disorders)
leukemias:
... condiitons involving WBCs
named according to the ... involved
... involves ...
... involves ...
```
cancerous;
abnormal WBC clone;
myelocytic leukemia; myeloblasts;
lymphocytic leukemia; lymphocytes
150
(leukocyte disorders) acute leukemia involves ... cells and primarily affects ...
... leukemia is more prevalent in older people
blast-type cells; children;
| chronic
151
(leukocyte disorders) leukemia:
... totally occupied with cancerous leukocytes
... in the bloodstream
death caused by ... and overwhelming ...
bone marrow;
immature nonfunctional WBCs;
internal hemorrhage;
infections
152
(leukocyte disorders) leukemia:
| treatments include ..., ... drugs, and ...
irradiation; antileukemic; stem cell transplants
153
(platelets) small fragments of ...
formation is regulated by ...
blue staining outer region, purple granules
megakaryocytes;
| thrombopoietin;
154
(platelets) granules contain ..., ..., ..., ..., and ... (PDGF)
serotonin; calcium; enzymes; ADP; platelet-derived growth factor
155
(platelets) form a temporary ... that helps seal breaks in blood vessels
circulating platelets are kept inactive and mobile by .... and ... from ... cells of blood vessels
platelet plug;
| NO; prostacyclin; endothelial
156
platelet formation:
starts with hematopoietic stem cell (hemocytoblast)
goes to ... (... megakaryocyte) to .... megakaryocyte to ... megakaryocyte and finally to platelets
megakaryoblast; stage I;
stage II/III;
Stage IV
157
...: fast series of rxns for stoppage of bleeding
hemostasis
158
hemostasis requires ..., and substances releases by ... and ...
clotting factors; platelets; injured tissues
159
hemostasis involves 3 steps:
1. ...
2. ... formation
3. ... (...)
vascular spasm;
platelet plug;
coagulation; blood clotting
160
```
(hemostasis)
Step 1- vascular spasm:
... of damaged blood vessel
triggers:
direct injury to ...
chemicals released by ... and ...
...
most effective in ...
```
```
vasoconstriction;
vascular smooth muscle;
endothelial cells; platelets;
pain reflexes;
smaller blood vessels
```
161
(hemostasis) step 2-platelet plug formation:
example of a ... cycle
as a rule- platelets do not ... together --> ... and ... prevent platelet aggregations in undamaged tissue
positive feedback;
| nitric oxide; prostacyclin (PGI2);
162
(hemostasis) step 2- platelet plug formation:
damaged endothelium exposes ...
platelets stick to these via plasma protein ...
swell, become spiked and sticky, and release chemical messengers:
... causes more platelets to stick and release their contents
... and ... enhance vasular spasm and platelet aggregation
collagen fibers;
von Willebrand factor;
ADP;
serotonin; thromboxane A2
163
(hemostasis) step 3- coagulation:
a set of rxns in which blood is transformed from a .. to a ...
reinforces the platelet plug with ...
liquid; gel;
| fibrin threads
164
coagulation phase 3: common pathway to the fibrin mesh:
... converts soluble fibrinogen into ...
thrombin; fibrin
165
coagulation phase 3: common pathway to the fibrin mesh:
fibrin strands form the ... of a clot
fibrin causes plasma to become a ... for formed elements
thrombin with ... activate ...
structural basis;
gel-like trap;
calcium; factor XIII
166
factor XIII
... fibrin
... and ... the clot
cross-links;
| strengthens; stabilizes
167
clot retraction:
... and ... in platelets contract within 30-60 mins
platelets pull on the .., squeezing ... from the clot
actin; myosin;
| fibrin strands; serum
168
clot repair;
... stimulates division of smooth muscle cells and .. to rebuild blood vessel wall
... stimulates endothelial cells to multiply and restore the endothelial lining
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF); fibroblasts;
| vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
169
fibrinolysis;
begins within ...
... in clot is converted to ... by ..., ... and ...
two days;
| plasminogen; plasmin; tissue plasminogen activator (tPA); factor XII; thrombin
170
fibrinolysis:
| plasmin is a ... enzyme
fibrin-digesting
171
factors limiting clot growth/formation:
two homeostatic mechanisms prevent clots from becoming large:
swift removal and ... of ...
inhibition of ...
dilution; clotting factors
| activated clotting factors
172
inhibition of clotting factors:
most thrombin is bound to ..., and prevented from acting elsewhere
..., ..., and ... inactivate thrombin and other procoagulants
fibrin threads;
| antithrombin III; protein C; heparin
173
inhibition of clotting factors:
| ...,another anticoagulant, also inhibits thrombin activity
heparin
174
factors preventing undesirable clotting:
platelet adhesion is prevented by:
... of blood vessels
antithrombic substances ... and ... secreted by endothelial cells
...., ..., which act as potent anticoagulants
smooth endothelial lining;
nitric oxide; prostacyclin;
vitamin E; quinine;
175
....: undesirable clot formation
| ...: abnormalities that prevent normal clot formation
thromboembolytic disorders;
| bleeding disorders
176
(thromboembolytic conditions) ...: clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel; may block ..., leading to ...
thrombus; circulation; tissue death
177
(thromboembolytic conditions) ...: a thrombus freely floating int he blodostream
... impair the ability of the body to obtain oxygen
... can cause strokes
embolus;
pulmonary emboli;
cerebral emboli
178
```
(thromboembolytic conditions)
prevented by :
...
...
...
```
aspirin;
heparin;
warfarin
179
(thromboembolytic conditions)
| aspirin: ... that inhibits ...
antiprostaglandin; thromboxane A2
180
(thromboembolytic conditions) heparin: ... used clinically for ... and ... cardiac care
anticoagulant; pre- and postoperative
181
(thromboembolytic conditions) warfarin: used for those prone to
atrial fibrillation
182
(bleeding conditions) ...: deficient number of circulating platelets
thrombocytopenia
183
(bleeding conditions) thrombocytopenia:
| ... (small red/purple spots) appear due to spontaneous, widespread hemorrhage
petechia
184
(bleeding conditions) thrombocytopenia:
due to suppression or destruction of ... (e.g., malignancy, radiation)
platelet count below .../mm^3 is diagnostic
treated with transfusion of ...
bone marrow;
50,000;
concentrated platelets
185
(bleeding conditions)
impaired liver function:
inability to synthesize ...
procoagulants
186
(bleeding conditions) impaired liver function:
causes include ..., ..., and ...
liver disease can also prevent the liver from producing ..., impairing ... and ... absorption
vitamin K deficiency; hepatitis; cirrhosis;
bile;
fat; vitamin K
187
(bleeding conditions)
hemophilias include similar hereditary bleeding disorders:
... most common type; due to a deficiency of ...
...: deficiency of factor IX
...: mild type; deficiency of factor XI
hemophilia A; factor VIII;
hemophilia B;
hemophlia C
188
(bleeding conditions) hemophilia:
symptoms include ..,. especially into ...
treated with ... and injections of ...
prolonged bleeding; joint cavities;
| plasma transfusions; missing factors
