Exam 1 Info- Slides Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
physiology: the study of … at many levels
subdivisions are based on … (e.g. renal or cardiovascular physiology)
A
function; organ systems
2
Q
… system: forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc) receptors and sweat and oil glands
A
integumentary
3
Q
… system: protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. blood cells are formed within … Bones store …
A
skeletal; bones; minerals
4
Q
… system: allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. maintains posture, and produces heat
A
muscular
5
Q
.. system: as the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
A
nervous
6
Q
… system: glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells
A
endocrine
7
Q
… system: blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc. the heart pumps blood
A
cardiovascular
8
Q
… system/…: picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. houses white blood cells (…) involved in immunity. the immune response mounts and attack against foreign substances within the body
A
lymphatic; immunity
9
Q
… system: keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes CO2. the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs
A
respiratory
10
Q
… system: breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces
A
digestive
11
Q
… system: eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood
A
urinary
12
Q
Overall function of reproductive system is production of ….
… produce sperm and male sex
hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female structures
A
offspring;
testes
13
Q
… produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining
female structures serve as sites for … and development of the ….
… of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
A
ovaries; fertilization; fetus; mammary glands
14
Q
…: maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes
a … state of …
A
homeostasis;
dynamic; equilibrium
15
Q
how homeostasis works: “
- .. produces change in variable
- … detects change
- …: information sent along … pathway to control center
- …: information sent along … pathway to effector
- … feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level
A
stimulus receptor; input; afferent; output; efferent; response of effector
16
Q
homeostatic control mechanisms:
involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)
… and … systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
A
nervous; endocrine
17
Q
patterns of chemical reactions:
… (…) rxns
… rxns
… rxns
A
synthesis; combination;
decomposition;
exchange
18
Q
organismal functions depend on …
A
individual and collective cell functions
19
Q
biochemical activities of cells are dictated by their specific
A
subcellular structures
20
Q
continuity of life has a … basis
A
cellular
21
Q
over … different types of human cells
types differ in …, …, … and …
A
200; size; shape; subcellular components; functions
22
Q
… cells, …, …: cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport gases
A
epithelial; fibroblasts; erythrocytes
23
Q
… cells and … cells: cells that move organs and boyd parts
A
skeletal and smooth muscle cells
24
Q
…: cell that stores nutrients
A
fat cell
25
...; cell that fights disease
macrophage
26
...: cell that gathers info and control body functions
nerve cell
27
...: cell of reproduction
sperm
28
cytoskeletal elements:
| ... and ...
microtubule; intermediate filaments
29
lipid rafts: about ...% of the outer membrane surface
contain ..., .., and ...
may function as stable platforms for cell-signaling molecules
20;
phospholipids;
sphingolipids;
cholesterol
30
integral proteins;
firmly inserted into the membrane (most are ...)
functions; ... (... and ...), ..., or ...
transmembrane;
| transport proteins; channels; carriers; enzymes; receptors
31
peripheral proteins:
loosely attached to ...
include ... on intracellular surface and ... on extracellular surface
integral proteins;
| filaments; glycoproteins
32
peripheral proteins:
functions:
..., ... proteins, ...., provide support on ..., and form party of ...
```
enzymes;
motor;
cell-to-cell links;
intracellular surface;
glycocalyx
```
33
functions of membrane proteins:
...
receptors for ...
attachment to ... and ...
transport;
signal transduction;
cytoskeleton; extracellular matrix
34
transport: a protein that spans the membrane may provide a ... across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. some transport proteins ... as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane
hydrophilic channel;
| hydrolyze ATP
35
receptors for signal transduction:
a membrane protein exposed to the outside of the cell may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a ..., such as a ...
the external signal may cause a change in shape in the protein that initiates a chain of chemical rxns in the cell
chemical messenger;
| hormone
36
attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix:
elements of the cytoskeleton (cell's internal supports) and the extracellular matrix (fibers and other substances outside the cell) may be anchored to membrane proteins, which help maintain ... and fix the ... of certain membrane proteins. others play a role in ... or bind ...
cell shape; location; cell movement; adjacent cells together
37
(components of a control mechanism)
1. receptor (sensor): monitors the enviro and ...
2. control center: determines the ... at which the variable is maintained; receives ... from receptor; determines ...
responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables);
set point;
input;
appropriate response
38
(components of a control mechanism)
3. effector: receives ... from control center, provides the means to respond, response acts to ... or ... the stimulus (feedback)
output;
| reduce; enhance
39
...; the response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g. regulation of body temperature-- a ... mechanism and regulation of blood volume by ADH -- an ... mechanism)
negative feedback; nervous; endocrine
40
negative feedback -- regulation of blood volume by ADH:
receptors sense ...
control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release ...
ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to ...
```
decreased blood volume;
antidiuretic hormone (ADH);
return more water to the blood
```
41
...: the response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus; may exhibit a ... or ... effect
usually controls ... events
e.g. enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin
platelet plug formation and blood clotting
positive feedback;
cascade; amplifying;
infrequent
42
positive feedback loop with platelets:
1. break or tear occurs in blood vessel wall
2. ... adhere to site and release chemicals
3. released chemicals ...
4. ... forms
platelets;
attract more platelets;
platelet plug
43
homeostatic imbalance:
disturbance of homeostasis:
increases risk of ...
contributes to changes associated with ...
may allow ... to take over (e.g. heart failure)
disease;
aging;
destructive positive feedback mechanisms
44
(necessary life functions)
| 1. maintaining ... between internal/external enviros: ... and ...
boundaries; plasma membrane; skin
45
(necessary life functions)
2. movement (contractility)
of body parts (...)
of substances (... and ...)
skeletal muscle;
| cardiac and smooth muscle
46
(necessary life functions)
3. responsiveness: the ability to sense and respond to ...
... reflex
control of ...
stimuli;
withdrawal;
breathing rate
47
(necessary life functions)
4. digestion:
breakdown of ...
... of simple molecules into blood
ingested foodstuffs;
| absorption
48
(necessary life functions)
5. metabolism: all chemical rxns that occur in body cells
... and ...
catabolism; anabolism
49
(necessary life functions) 6. excretion: the removal of wastes from ... and ... --> ..., ..., ...
metabolism; digestion; urea; CO2; feces
50
(necessary life functions) 7. reproduction:
... for .. or ...
production of offspring
8. growth: increase in .. of a ... or of organism
cellular division for growth or repair;
size of a body part
51
(survival needs) 1. nutrients: chemicals for ... and ...
| ..., ..., ..., ..., ...
energy; cell building;
| carbohydrates; fats; proteins; minerals; vitamins
52
(survival needs)
2. oxygen: essential for .. (...)
3. water: most abundant chemical in the body; site of ...
energy release; ATP production;
| chemical rxns
53
(survival needs) 4. normal body temperature: affects
rate of chemical rxn
54
(survival needs) 5. appropriate atmospheric pressure:
| for adequate ... and ... in the lungs
breathing; gas exchange
55
physiology as a scientific discipline is the investigation of the fundamental ... and ... phenomena, the coordinated ..., and the continuous ... between cells that underlie biological function
biophysical; biochemical;
homeostatic control mechanisms;
communication
56
...: function is dependent on structure, and the form of a structure relates to its function
principle of complementarity
57
... refers to movement at the cellular level
contractility
58
there are ... organ systems that work together to maintain life
11
59
homeostasis maintains a dynamic state of equilibrium through a ...
negative feedback loop
60
(cell-to-cell communication)
physiological signals:
... signals --> changes in the ... of a cell
... signals --> secreted by cells into ...; responsible for most ... within the body
electrical;
membrane potential;
chemical; extracellular fluid;
communication
61
```
(cell-to-cell communication)
four basic methods of communication:
...
... signals (... molecules)
... cell-to-cell communication (.../...)
... communication (...)
```
gap junctions;
contact-dependent; cell adhesion;
local; paracrine; autocrine;
long-distance; endocrine
62
gap junctions:
direct ... and local cell-to-cell comm
... form ...in the membrane on the side of the connection (...)
contact;
| connexins; hexameric hemichannels; connexons
63
gap junctions:
| connexons from two cells assemble to form a direct .. (....)
cytoplasmic connection; gap junction channel
64
gap junctions:
transfer both ... and ... signals
electric current is carried by ... (...)
chemical; electrical;
| charged particles; ions
65
contact-dependent signals:
require interaction between ... on two adjacent cells
... transfer signals in both directions
can be either "sticking to themselves" (the same molecule on the other membrane: ...) or to a different molecule (...)
membrane molecules;
cell adhesion molecules (CAMs);
homophilic; heterophilic
66
local cell-to-cell communication:
a secreted signal molecule acts on a ... at the target cell
if the signal molecule acts on the same cell that secreted it, it is called an ... signal
if the signal molecule acts on a cell close to the one that secreted it, it is called a ... signal
specific receptor;
autocrine;
paracrine
67
Long-distance communication:
1. .. signaling:
neurons communicate over long distance with the help of ..- long cell processes that propagate active electrical signals
arrival of electrical signals at a ... triggers release of a transmitter that binds to a receptor on a target cell
... communication
neurotransmitter;
axons;
synapse;
rapid
68
Long-distance communication:
2. ...: secreted by ... glands or ... cells into the circulatory system (blood)
chemical signaling that requires receptors on target cells, just like with autocrine/paracrine signaling.
only target cells with appropriate receptors will respond to signal
hormones; endocrine; endocrine
69
Long-distance communication:
| 2b. ...: chemicals released by ... into the blood for action at distant targets
neurohormones; neurons
70
Long-distance communication:
3. ...: loose category of small proteins (peptides) that act similar to hormones and paracrine signals (require receptors on targets)
cytokines
71
Long-distance communication:
3. cytokines:
differences between these and other signaling molecules:
... than hormones (picomolar vs. nanomolar), not usually made by ... or ... (all ... cells produce cytokinins)
lower conc;
| specialized cells; organs; nucleated
72
Long-distance communication:
3. cytokines:
particularly important in ... and ... responses
can also act as ... or ... signals (... and ...)
immune; stress;
autocrine; paracrine;
development; cell differentiation
73
... signal molecule (e.g. steroid) can pass the plasma membrane:
soluble receptor in .. or ..
... responses, usually related to changes in ... and ...
lipophilic;
cytosol; nucleus;
slow;
gene transcription; translation
74
.../... signal molecule (e.g. peptide) cannot pass plasma membrane:
receptor in the membrane
immediate activation of ... --> .. responses
lipophobic; hydrophilic;
| intracellular signal pathways; rapid
75
```
four categories of membrane receptors for lipophobic signal molecules:
...
...
...
...
```
receptor-channel;
receptor-enzyme;
G protein-coupled receptor;
integrin receptor
76
a signal molecule acts as the ... of its receptor
ligand
77
a receptor's ligand is the ... (...)
any substance (i.e. medication) that also activates the receptor is also a receptor ...
any substance that binds to the receptor and inactivates (blocks/inhibits) it, is an ...
natural agonist; activator;
agonist;
antagonist
78
biological signal transduction converts chemical signals into cellular responses.
pathways often include:
... enzymes like ... or ...
... molecules
... that phosphorylate proteins and thus change their conformation/function
regulation of intracellular ... level. This molecule itself is a potent ...
amplifier; cyclases; lipases;
2nd messenger;
kinases;
Ca2+; intracellular messenger
79
steps of a signal transduction pathway form a ...
cascade
80
... receptors and ... receptors act through enzymes and often second messengers
the signaling cascade includes enzymatic steps that can vastly amplify the signal (hundredfold per step_
G protein-coupled; enzyme-linked
81
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
... domains
only found in ..., not ...
largest, most diverse group of membrane receptors
involved in pretty much all physiological functions
estimate: 30-50% of marketed drugs target GPCRs
7 transmembrane;
| eukaryotes; bacteria
82
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs):
| G proteins either act directly or through ..., often to activate ... that phosphorylate target proteins
2nd messenger signaling pathways;
| kinases
83
G protein cycle:
membrane-spanning proteins
cytoplasmic tail linked to G protein, a ... molecule
three-part transducer
84
direct effects of G proteins:
| ... slows heart rate by opening ... channels in sinoatrial cells
acetylcholine; potassium
85
more often, G proteins activate enzymes that produce 2nd messengers
resulting signal cascades lead to ... and/or ...
target protein phosphorylation; Ca2+ signaling
86
1. signal molecule binds to G protein-linked receptor, which activates the G protein
2. G protein turns on ..., an amplifier enzyme
3. the amplifier enzyme converts ... to ....
4. cAMP activates ...
5. this molecule phosphorylates other proteins, leading ultimately to a cellular response
adenylyl cyclase;
ATP; cyclic AMP;
protein kinase A
87
1. signal molecule activates receptor and associated G protein
2. G protein activates ... (PL-C), an amplifier enzyme
3. this amplifier enzyme converts membrane phospholipids into ... which remains in the membrane and ..., which diffuses into the cytoplasm
4. the former molecule (...) activates ... (PK-C), which phosphorylates proteins
5. the latter molecule (..) causes release of ... from organelles, creating a ... signal
phospholipase C;
diacylglycerol (DAG); IP3;
DAG; protein kinase C;
IP3; Ca2+; Ca2+
88
signal pathway depends on the type of ...
Gs --> ... adenylyl cyclase
Gi --> ... adenylyl cyclase
Gq --> activating ...
G protein;
stimulating;
inhibiting;
phospholipase C
89
target response does not just depend on the signal molecule, but also on the specific ...
target receptor
90
alpha-receptor responds to epinephrine in such a way that blood vessels ...
beta-receptor responds to epinephrine in such a way that blood vessels ...
constrict; dilate
91
neurotransmitters can act through both ... and ...
ligand-gated ion channels; GPCRs;
92
GPCR signaling can affect neuronal ... properties and even change the ... properties of the "ionotropic" receptor
electrical; gating
93
(calcium as an intracellular messenger)
| Ca2+ binds to the protein ..., found in all cells, and alters enzyme or transport activity or gating of ion channels
calmodulin
94
(calcium as an intracellular messenger)
Ca2+ binds to other regulatory proteins and alters movement of ... or ... proteins, i.e. microtubules
regulates protein ..., which initiates muscle contraction in skeletal muscles
contractile; cytoskeletal;
| troponin;
95
(calcium as an intracellular messenger)
Ca2+ binds to regulatory proteins to trigger ... of ...
beta cells of the pancreas for release of ...
secretory vesicles in ...
exocytosis; secretory vesicles;
insulin;
neuronal terminal buttons
96
(calcium as an intracellular messenger) calcium binds directly to ion channels to alter ...
Ca2+ activated ... channels in neurons
gating states;
| K+ channels
97
(calcium as an intracellular messenger) Calcium entry into the fertilized egg initiates ...
development of the embryo
98
... signals require interaction between membrane molecules on two cells
CAMS transfer signals in both directions
contact-dependent
99
... convert extracellular signals into intracellular messages which create a response
transducers
100
some second messengers create electrical signals:
skeletal muscles mechanism for contraction
... receptor found in neurons binds ..., allows ... into cell along gradient and ... cell
ACh; Ach; Na; depolarizes
101
The binding of calcium to calmodulin results in a 10-100 thousand fold increase in the ... of the receptor protein for target enzymes.
affinity
102
some calmodulin-regulated enzymes and cellular processes:
1. ... metabolism
2. cell ... metabolism
3. ...; ...
4. .... metabolism
cyclic nucleotide; calcium; contraction; motility; glycogen
103
hormones are synthesized in certain specialized cells and carried through the circulatory system to target cells. a hormone can be considered a ... that acts extracellularly by binding to receptors on the plasma membrane of the target cell. this in turn cause ... to act intracellularly
first messenger; second messenger
104
A second messenger found during glycogenolysis or glycogen mobilization is cyclic-AMP or adnosine 3'5' monophoshpate. ... is an effector enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cyclic-AMP. Cyclic-AMP may then activate ... which catalyze further phosphorylation. In order for adenylate cyclase and cyclic-AMP to function intracellularly, they must bind to the complex formed by ....
Adenylate cyclase; protein kinases; calmodulin and calcium
105
... is responsible for extracting calcium from the cytoplasm. (2). An increase in intracellular calcium activates binding to calmodulin which then activates .... This in turn causes calcium to be released from the cytoplasm. This activity establishes a method of maintaining a low level of intracellular calcium through self-regulation. Calcium, therefore, has the ability to regulate its own cellular concentration with the help of...
Ca2+-ATPase;
Ca2+-ATPase;
calmodulin
106
In order for muscle to contract, two proteins,... and ... must interact. (5). They are also used in nonmuscular cells and processes like human platelets. For a muscle to contract, intracellular... concentration must increase.
myosin; actin; calcium
107
The increased calcium concentration enables actin to interact with myosin. Actin-myosin interaction activates ...which extracts energy from ATP for contraction.
In skeletal and cardiac muscle, the calcium dependent activation of actomyosin ATPase is mediated by the... (4).
actomyosin ATPase;
| troponin-tropomyosin complex;
108
In smooth muscle and nonmuscle cells, regulation occurs at the level of ... and consists of the calcium dependent phosphorylation of the two regulatory .... This phosphorylation is reversible. These reactions in smooth muscle are catalyzed by the myosin light chain kinases and phosphatases.
myosin; light chains of myosin;
109
...is the regulator of calcium action for myosin light chain kinases and phosphatases.
Myosin light chain kinase catalyzes the transfer of phosphate from ATP to the light chain of myosin. This light chain kinase was found to consist of two different subunits. The calcium binding subunit was shown to be.... The other subunit was found to be a monomeric protein that from a one-to -one complex with calmodulin.
Calmodulin; calmodulin;
110
The degradation and synthesis of glycogen is controlled by phosphorylase kinase and glycogen synthase. (6). Phosporylase kinase has a subunit of calmodulin which seems to be bound tightly to the....
holoenzyme;
111
In skeletal or cardiac muscle, calmodulin stimulates phosphorylase kinase while controlling the activity of glycogen synthase (2). This ends in the ... while inhibiting its synthesis. The activity of calmodulin, phosphorylase kinase and glycogen synthase is a good example of a coordination in the regulation of a process like metabolism.
breakdown of glycogen;
112
nitric oxide (NO):
activates ... --> formation of ...
acts as ... and ... in the brain
guanylyl cyclase; cGMP;
| neurotransmitter; neuromodulator;
113
```
nitric oxide (NO):
produced by endothelial cells:
diffuses into ... and causes ...
rather than binding to a receptor that regulates transcription, NO alters the activity of ...
```
smooth muscle; vasodilation; intracellular target enzymes
114
the enzyme ... catalyzes the formation of nitric oxide from ...
nitric oxide synthase (NOS); arginine
115
carbon monoxide (CO):
also activates ... and ...
targets ... and ... tissue
guanylyl cyclase; cGMP;
| smooth muscle; neural
116
hydrogen sulfide (H2S):
targets ... system (...)
garlic is a major source of precursors
cardiovascular; vasodilation
117
the ... cascade produces lipid messengers
arachidonic acid
118
up-regulaton:
500 to 100K receptors on a cell membrane with potentially more intracellularly (cytosol and nucleus)
with increased signal (ligand) there is an initial increased response, but cells may attempt to bring their response back to normal by either ... or ...
down-regulation; desensitization
119
down-regulation:
by decreasing the number of ...
by decreasing the ...
one explanation for ...
receptors; binding affinity; drug tolerance
120
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis and Exocytosis:
1. ligand binds to membrane receptor
2. receptor-ligand migrates to ...
3. endocytosis
4. vesicle loses ...
5. receptors and ligands separate
6. ligands go to ... or ... for processing
7. transport vesicle with receptors moves to the cell membrane
8. transport vesicle and cell membrane fuse (...)
clathrin-coated pit;
clathrin coat;
lysosomes; Golgi;
membrane recycling
