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From Flashcardlet > 2 A&P II Chapter 22 Respiratory > Flashcards

2 A&P II Chapter 22 Respiratory Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four functions of the respiratory system?

A
  1. Pulmonary ventilation
  2. External respiration
  3. Transport of respiratory gases
  4. Internal respiration
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2
Q

What is pulmonary ventilation?

A

Breathing - air moving to and out of the lungs

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3
Q

What is external respiration?

A

Oxygen diffuses from the lungs to the blood and CO2 diffuses from the blood to the lungs

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4
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

Oxygen diffuses from the blood to the tissue cells and CO2 diffuses from cells to the blood

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5
Q

What are the structures of the upper respiratory tract?

A

Nose
Nasal cavity
Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx

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6
Q

What are the structures of the lower respiratory tract?

A

Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs

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7
Q

What is respiration?

A

The exchange of gases

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8
Q

How does the respiratory system function in gas conditioning?

A

Warming, humidification, cleaning, and turbulent flow

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9
Q

How does the respiratory system function in defense?

A

Hairs, goblet cells, mucous glands secreting lysozyme, and IgA (immunoglobulin)

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10
Q

What are the two sensory functions the respiratory system performs?

A

Olfaction and sound production

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11
Q

What is the respiratory zone?

A

Site of gas exchange

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12
Q

What structures are located in the respiratory zone?

A

Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

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13
Q

What is the conducting zone?

A

Provides rigid conduits for air to reach the gas exchange sites
Also cleans, humidifies, and warms incoming air

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14
Q

What structures are located in the conducting zone?

A

All airways above the respiratory bronchioles - nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary - terminal bronchioles

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15
Q

What are the functions of the nose and nasal cavity?

A
  1. Provides airway for respiration
  2. Moistens and warms entering air
  3. Filters and cleans inspired air
  4. Serves as resonating chamber for speech
  5. Houses olfactory receptors
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16
Q

What is the root?

A

The area below the eyebrow

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17
Q

What is the bridge?

A

Made up of the nasal bones

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18
Q

What is the dorsum nasi?

A

The anterior margin of the nose

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19
Q

What is the ala?

A

Flares of the nose

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20
Q

What comprises the dorsum nasi?

A

Cartilage

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21
Q

What is the apex?

A

The tip of the nose

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22
Q

What are the superior bones of the nose?

A

Nasal and frontal

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23
Q

What is the lateral bone of the nose?

A

Maxilla

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24
Q

What kind of cartilage is in the nose?

A

Hyaline

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25
Q

What divides the nose?

A

Nasal septum

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26
Q

What bones make up the nasal septum?

A

Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone and vomer

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27
Q

What is the roof of the nasal cavity formed by?

A

Ethmoid and sphenoid bones

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28
Q

What is the floor of the nasal cavity formed by?

A

Palate

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29
Q

What bones comprise the hard palate?

A

Palatine and maxillary

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30
Q

What is the nasal vestibule?

A

Superior to nostrils, lined with skin containing sebaceous and sweat glands and numerous hair follicles

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31
Q

What is the name for hair follicles in the nose?

A

Vibrissae

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32
Q

What are the two parts of the mucous membrane?

A
  1. Olfactory mucosa

2. Respiratory mucosa

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33
Q

What is the olfactory mucosa?

A

Small patch in the mucous membrane, contains smell receptors in the olfactory epithelium

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34
Q

What is the respiratory mucosa?

A

Lines most of the nasal cavity with pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells (and goblet cells) sitting on lamina propria with seromucous nasal glands

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35
Q

What are seromucous nasal glands?

A

Contain mucous secreting mucus cells and serous cells secreting watery fluid with enzymes like lysozymes

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36
Q

What does the serous fluid in the nasal cavity do?

A

Helps humidify air

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37
Q

How much mucous is secreted in the nasal cavity each day?

A

1 quart

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38
Q

What does lysozyme do?

A

Attacks and destroys bacteria

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39
Q

What are defensins?

A

Natural antibiotics that kill microbes

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40
Q

What structure secretes defensins?

A

Respiratory mucosa

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41
Q

Where does the nasal cavity have a lot of sensory nerve endings?

A

Nasal mucosa

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42
Q

What happens when the sensory nerve endings of the respiratory mucosa get irritated with particles?

A

Sneeze reflex

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43
Q

What lies under the nasal epithelium to warm the incoming air?

A

Capillaries and veins

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44
Q

What are the three nasal conchae?

A
  1. Superior
  2. Middle
  3. Inferior
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45
Q

Where are the meatuses?

A

Inferior to the conchae

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46
Q

What do the conchae function in?

A

Increasing the surface area exposed to air and enhancing the turbulence of air

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47
Q

What does turbulence do to air?

A

Deflects large particles in the air into mucous

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48
Q

What happens to the temperature of the air and the conchae as air is inspired?

A

Cools the conchae, warms the air

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49
Q

What happens to the temperature of the air and the conchae as air is exhaled?

A

Warms the conchae, cools the air

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50
Q

What are the four paranasal sinuses?

A
  1. Maxillary
  2. Frontal
  3. Ethmoid
  4. Sphenoid
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51
Q

What are three functions of the paranasal sinuses?

A
  1. Lighten the skull
  2. Warms and humidifies air
  3. Produces mucus that is suctioned into the nasal cavity
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52
Q

How do the sinuses communicate with the nasal cavity?

A

Via ducts

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53
Q

What kind of epithelium lines the nasal sinuses?

A

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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54
Q

What is rhinitis?

A

Inflammation of nasal mucosa with excessive mucus production, congestion, and postnasal drip

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55
Q

What is a risk of rhinitis?

A

Infections spreading to the paranasal sinuses and tear ducts, causing sinusitis

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56
Q

How does a sinus headache occur?

A

Mucus blocks the passageways connecting the sinus to the nasal cavity. Air in the sinus is absorbed, resulting in partial vacuum

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57
Q

What is the term for the throat?

A

Pharynx

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58
Q

What type of muscle is found in the pharynx?

A

Skeletal muscle lined with mucous membrane

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59
Q

What are the three parts of the pharynx?

A
  1. Nasopharynx
  2. Oropharynx
  3. Laryngopharynx
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60
Q

What is the opening into the nasopharynx from the nasal cavity?

A

Choanae

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61
Q

What separates the oral cavity from the nasopharynx?

A

Soft palate

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62
Q

How does the soft palate move and when?

A

During swallowing, the soft palate moves superiorly preventing food from entering the nasal cavity

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63
Q

What type of epithelium is present in the nasopharynx?

A

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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64
Q

What is located on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx?

A

Pharyngeal tonsils

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65
Q

What opening is located in the nasopharynx?

A

Eustachian tube openings which drain the middle ear cavity and equalize pressure

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66
Q

What is the arch in the oropharynx called?

A

Isthmus of the fauces

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67
Q

What structure does the oropharynx extend until?

A

Hyoid bone

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68
Q

What type of epithelium is located in the oropharynx?

A

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous

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69
Q

Why is the oropharynx full of stratified squamous cells?

A

Accommodates increased friction and chemical trauma

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70
Q

What structures are located on the lateral walls of the oropharynx?

A

Palatine tonsils

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71
Q

What structures are located on the base of the tongue?

A

Lingual tonsils

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72
Q

What are the two muscular arches in the oropharynx?

A
  1. Anterior palatoglossal arches

2. Posterior palatopharyngeal arches

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73
Q

What is the opening between the two arches?

A

Fauces

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74
Q

What type of epithelium is located in the laryngopharynx?

A

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous

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75
Q

What does the laryngopharynx extend to and from?

A

Hyoid to larynx (epiglottis)

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76
Q

During swallowing, does air or food have the right of way?

A

Food, air passage temporarily stops

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77
Q

What structures close when swallowing?

A

Vocal cords swallow

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78
Q

What are the functions of the pharynx?

A
  1. Passage for food and air
  2. Resonating chamber for speech sounds
  3. Location of tonsils - immune system
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79
Q

What type of muscle is the tongue - smooth or skeletal?

A

Skeletal muscle

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80
Q

What cranial nerve innervates the tongue?

A

CN XII - hypoglossal

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81
Q

What is the term for the voice box?

A

Larynx

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82
Q

Which is anterior, trachea or esophagus?

A

Trachea

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83
Q

What type of cells line the larynx?

A

Superiorly - nonkeratinized stratified squamous

Inferiorly - pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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84
Q

At what level does the epithelium change in the larynx?

A

Vocal cords

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85
Q

What are the functions of the larynx?

A
  1. Provide patent airway
  2. Act as switching mechanism to route air and food to proper channels
  3. Voice production
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86
Q

How many cartilages are in the larynx?

A

9

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87
Q

What type of cartilage is in the larynx?

A

Hyaline, except epiglottis (elastic)

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88
Q

What are the cartilages of the larynx?

A
  1. Thyroid
  2. Cricoid
  3. Epiglottis
  4. Vocal cords
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89
Q

What is the largest cartilage of the larynx?

A

Thyroid

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90
Q

What is the term for the fusion of the two cartilage plates of the thyroid cartilage?

A

Laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple)

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91
Q

What is the growth of the thyroid cartilage associated with?

A

Testosterone

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92
Q

What is lacking at the back of the larynx at the thyroid level?

A

No cartilage in the posterior, hyaline cartilage in the shape of a C

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93
Q

What structure does the cricoid cartilage connect with?

A

Trachea - cricothyroid ligament

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94
Q

What are the cartilages around the vocal cords?

A
  1. Arytenoid
  2. Cuneiform
  3. Corniculate
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95
Q

What is the most important cartilage that anchors the vocal cords?

A

Arytenoid cartilage

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96
Q

What cartilage is located on top of the arytenoid?

A

Corniculate

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97
Q

What is the name of the CT that supports the cuneiform cartilage?

A

Aryepiglottic fold

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98
Q

What kind of cartilage comprises the epiglottis?

A

Elastic

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99
Q

What does the epiglottis attach to?

A

Thyroid cartilage

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100
Q

What is the main function of the epiglottis?

A

To protect the trachea from fluid and food

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101
Q

What happens if something other than air enters the larynx?

A

Cough reflex initiated

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102
Q

What are the laryngeal muscles?

A

Intrinsic and extrinsic

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103
Q

Where do the intrinsic laryngeal muscles attach?

A

Arythenoid and corniculate

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104
Q

Where do the extrinsic laryngeal muscles attach?

A

Hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage

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105
Q

What do the intrinsic and extrinsic laryngeal muscles do?

A

Stabilize the larynx and aid in swallowing

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106
Q

Where do the vocal ligaments attach?

A

From the arytenoid cartilage to the thyroid cartilage

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107
Q

What kind of fibers comprises the vocal ligaments?

A

Elastic

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108
Q

What structure is located in the core of mucosal folds?

A

True vocal cords

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109
Q

Why are the vocal cords white?

A

They lack blood vessels

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110
Q

How do the vocal cords produce sound?

A

They vibrate as air rushes up from the lungs

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111
Q

What is the glottis?

A

The medial opening between the vocal cords where air passes

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112
Q

What is the term for the false vocal cords?

A

Vestibular folds

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113
Q

Are the false vocal cords inferior or superior to the true vocal cords?

A

False are superior to true

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114
Q

What is the function of the false vocal cords?

A

To protect the true vocal cords and help the glottis close when we swallow

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115
Q

What kind of epithelium lines the vocal cords?

A

Nonkeratinized stratified squamous

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116
Q

What three things determine the quality of the sound produced?

A
  1. Length
  2. Tension
  3. Position
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117
Q

What produces a higher pitch?

A

Tenser, faster vibrations

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118
Q

What does the loudness of the voice depend on?

A

The force with which the air stream rushes across the vocal cords

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119
Q

What is laryngitis?

A

Swelling of the vocal cords, interfering with vibrations creating a whisper or hoarseness

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120
Q

What is the term for the windpipe?

A

Trachea

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121
Q

What are the tracheal rings connected by?

A

Elastic sheets

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122
Q

What is the smooth muscle that connects the opening of the ring in the back of the trachea?

A

Trachealis

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123
Q

Why might the trachealis expand?

A

To allow the passage of food

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124
Q

Why might the trachealis contract?

A

Causes air to rush upward with force - coughing

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125
Q

What are the four layers of the tracheal wall?

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Adventitia
  4. Hyaline cartilage
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126
Q

What kind of cells are in the mucosa of the tracheal wall?

A

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells

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127
Q

How many hyaline cartilage rings are there in the trachea?

A

16-20

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128
Q

What do the hyaline cartilages do for the trachea?

A

Prevent collapse

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129
Q

What is the carina?

A

Where the trachea branches into two main bronchi

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130
Q

What is special about the mucous membrane in the carina?

A

It is the most sensitive out of the respiratory tract to trigger coughing

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131
Q

How does the trachea act as an elevator?

A

It aids in the removal of foreign particles

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132
Q

What is the name for all of the bronchial structures?

A

Bronchiole tree

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133
Q

How many times does the bronchial tree branch?

A

23

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134
Q

At what spinal level do the primary bronchi begin?

A

T7

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135
Q

How do the primary bronchi run in the mediastinum?

A

Obliquely before plunging into the medial depression of the lung (hilum)

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136
Q

What are the characteristics of the right mainstem branch?

A

Wider, shorter, more vertical

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137
Q

How many secondary bronchi are there on the right?

A

3

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138
Q

How many secondary bronchi are there on the left?

A

2

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139
Q

What do the secondary bronchi supply?

A

Each lobe of the lungs

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140
Q

How many tertiary bronchi are on the right?

A

10

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141
Q

How many tertiary bronchi are on the left?

A

8-10

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142
Q

How many levels of branches of bronchioles are there?

A

9-12

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143
Q

What diameter is a bronchiole?

A

Smaller than 1 mm

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144
Q

What diameter is a terminal bronchiole?

A

Smaller than .5 mm

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145
Q

What is the final portion of the conducting airway?

A

Terminal bronchiole

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146
Q

What is another name for secondary bronchi?

A

Lobar

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147
Q

What is another name for tertiary bronchi?

A

Segmented

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148
Q

What does the cartilage of the lung look like?

A

Arranged in irregular plates

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149
Q

What type of epithelium lines the primary, secondary, and tertiary bronchi?

A

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

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150
Q

What type of epithelium lines the large bronchioles?

A

Ciliated simple columnar

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151
Q

What type of epithelium lines the small bronchioles?

A

Ciliated simple cuboidal

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152
Q

What type of epithelium lines the terminal bronchioles?

A

Nonciliated simple cuboidal

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153
Q

Does the amount of smooth muscle increase or decrease as the respiratory structures become smaller?

A

Increase

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154
Q

Does the amount of cartilage increase or decrease as the respiratory structures become smaller?

A

Decrease

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155
Q

What kind of receptors do epi and NE bind to on the smooth muscle in the respiratory system?

A

Beta 2 adrenergic receptors

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156
Q

What happens when the sympathetic nervous system secretes epi and NE?

A

Smooth muscle relaxation and widening of the airway diameter - bronchodilation

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157
Q

What happens when the parasympathetic nervous system sends impulses to the smooth muscle of the lungs?

A

Contraction of smooth muscles and bronchoconstriction

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158
Q

What are some examples of parasympathetic inflammatory mediators?

A

Allergic mediators like histamine

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159
Q

What are the respiratory zone structures?

A

Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Alveoli

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160
Q

What comprises an alveolar sac?

A

Two or more alveoli that share a common opening

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161
Q

How many alveoli usually comprise a sac?

A

300-400 million

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162
Q

What is an alveolus?

A

Cup shaped outpouching that is lined by simple squamous epithelium and supported by a thin elastic basement membrane

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163
Q

What is an alveolar pore??

A

Opening used for air equalization - air can move from one alveoli to another

164
Q

What are the two cells that make up the alveolar wall?

A

Type I and type II pneumocytes

165
Q

What are the type I pneumocytes?

A

Simple squamous cells that line the alveoli - majority of the cells

166
Q

What are the type II pneumocytes?

A

Secrete alveolar fluid which contains surfactant

167
Q

What is another name for the type II cells?

A

Septal cells

168
Q

What type of epithelium are type II cells?

A

Cuboidal

169
Q

What substance does type II pneumocytes secrete?

A

Surfactant and antimicrobial proteins

170
Q

What is the function of surfactant?

A

Decreasing surface tension in alveoli, preventing their collapse

171
Q

When are surfactant levels concerning?

A

In premie babies because they haven’t had enough time to produce sufficient amounts of surfactant

172
Q

What are alveoli surrounded by?

A

Fine elastic fibers

173
Q

How is air pressure equalized between alveoli?

A

Open alveolar pores connecting adjacent alveoli allow air pressure through out the lung to be equalized and provide alternate air routes to alveoli whose bronchi have collapsed

174
Q

Where do macrophages around the alveoli go since alveoli are dead ends?

A

They are swept up by the ciliary current into the pharynx

175
Q

What makes up the alveolar capillary membrane (respiratory membrane)

A

Simple squamous of blood capillary
Simple squamous of alveolar membrane
Fused basement membranes

176
Q

Why are the basement membranes of the blood and respiratory capillaries very thin?

A

They are fused together and need to be thin enough for diffusion to occur

177
Q

What kind of barrier is the respiratory membrane?

A

Blood air barrier

178
Q

What are the compartments that the pleurae divide the thoracic cavity into?

A

One central mediastinum and two lateral pleural compartments

179
Q

What do these compartments prevent and limit?

A

Prevent organs from interfering with one another and limit the spread of infection

180
Q

What shape are the lungs?

A

Cone

181
Q

What attaches the lungs to the mediastinum?

A

Roots, or vasobronchiole attachments

182
Q

Are the lungs connected?

A

No, the collapse of one does not collapse the other

183
Q

What are the two pleurae of the lungs

A

Visceral and parietal

184
Q

Where does the two pleurae fuse?

A

At the hilum

185
Q

What is the root of the lungs?

A

All structures passing through the hilum collectively

186
Q

What two functions does pleural fluid have?

A

Decreases friction between the membranes

Increases surface tension between the membranes to make them stick

187
Q

Where is the apex of the lung?

A

Slightly above the clavicle

188
Q

Where is the base of the lung?

A

Resting on the diaphragm

189
Q

Where is the cardiac notch?

A

The depression in the LEFT lung for the heart

190
Q

What fissure(s) does the left lung have?

A

Oblique

191
Q

What fissure(s) does the right lung have?

A

Oblique and horizontal

192
Q

How many bronchopulmonary segments are there in each lung lobe?

A

8-10 in left

10 in right

193
Q

Where does a bronchopulmonary segment get its nutrients and air from?

A

Each is served by its own artery and vein and receives air from an individual tertiary bronchi

194
Q

Where is pulmonary disease usually confined to?

A

One or few bronchopulmonary segments

195
Q

What are lobules?

A

The smallest subdivision of the lungs seen with the naked eye

196
Q

What is lung tissue called?

A

Stroma

197
Q

What is stroma made of?

A

Elastic CT

198
Q

What are the two circulations supplying the lungs?

A

Pulmonary and bronchial

199
Q

Where do the bronchial arteries branch off of?

A

The descending thoracic aorta

200
Q

How many bronchial arteries are there?

A

3-4

201
Q

Where do bronchial veins drain and empty to?

A

The azygous system

202
Q

Pulmonary circuit is – pressure and – volume

A

Low pressure, high volume

203
Q

Bronchial circuit is – pressure and – volume

A

High pressure, low volume

204
Q

What do bronchial arteries do?

A

Provide oxygenated systemic blood to lung tissue

205
Q

What do pulmonary arteries do?

A

Deliver blood to be oxygenated in the lungs

206
Q

What do pulmonary veins do?

A

Bring oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart

207
Q

What does the sympathetic nervous system do to air tubes?

A

Dilation

208
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do to air tubes?

A

Constriction

209
Q

Where are there bronchopulmonary lymph nodes?

A

Hilum of the lungs

210
Q

What are the lymph trunks that drain the lungs?

A

Right and left bronchomediastinal trunks

211
Q

Where does the right bornchomediastinal trunk empty into?

A

Right lymphatic duct

212
Q

Where does the left bornchomediastinal trunk empty into?

A

Thoracic duct

213
Q

Where do the intercostal arteries run, below or above?

A

Below the ribs

214
Q

What is the intrapleural pressure?

A

756

215
Q

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

760

216
Q

What is collapsing pressure?

A

4

217
Q

What are respiratory pressures always described relative to?

A

Atmsopheric pressure

218
Q

What is breathing?

A

Inspiration + expiration

219
Q

What is the definition of atmospheric pressure?

A

Pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body at sea level

220
Q

What is the value for atmospheric pressure?

A

760

221
Q

What three parts make up the sternum?

A

Manubrium, body, xiphoid process

222
Q

What are the true ribs?

A

Pairs 1-7 that attach directly to the sternum via hyaline costal cartilage

223
Q

What are the false ribs?

A

Pairs 8-12 where costal cartilage attaches indirectly to the sternum or not at all

224
Q

What are the floating ribs?

A

11-12 where the ribs don’t attach to the sternum

225
Q

What does pulmonary respiration signify?

A

Gas exchange

226
Q

What are the three processes of pulmonary respiration?

A

Ventilation, external and internal respiration

227
Q

What is ventilation?

A

The mechanical process of air flow in and out

228
Q

What is external respiration?

A

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide at alveolar capillary membranes in lungs

229
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the tissue level

230
Q

What does it mean when the respiratory pressure is negative?

A

It is lower than atmospheric pressure

231
Q

What does it mean when the respiratory pressure is positive?

A

It is higher than atmospheric pressure

232
Q

What does it mean when the respiratory pressure is zero?

A

It is the same as atmospheric pressure

233
Q

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

The pressure in the alveoli (aka intraalveolar pressure)

234
Q

What does intrapulmonary pressure fluctuate with?

A

Phases of breathing

235
Q

What is the intrapleural pressure?

A

The pressure in the pleural cavity

236
Q

What does intrapleural pressure fluctuate with?

A

Phases of breathing

237
Q

Which pressure is always less and by how much?

A

Intrapleural pressure is always 4 mm Hg less than pulmonary pressure

238
Q

What are the two opposing forces in the lungs?

A
  1. Lungs natural tendency to recoil

2. Surface tension of the alveolar fluid

239
Q

What do the opposing forces in the lungs attempt to do?

A

Pull the lungs away from the thoracic wall and cause the lungs to collapse

240
Q

What does the surface tension of the alveolar fluid do?

A

The fluid molecules attract each other, producing surface tension that constantly acts to draw the alveoli to their smallest dimension

241
Q

What keeps the lungs from collapsing?

A

The natural elasticity of the chest wall pulls the thorax outward

242
Q

How easily are the pleura separated?

A

It takes extreme force to separate them - not likely to happen

243
Q

What is the net result of all the forces on the lungs?

A

A negative intrapleural pressure

244
Q

What happens if the intrapleural pressure and the pulmonary pressure equalized?

A

Collapsed lung

245
Q

What is the transpulmonary pressure?

A

The difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures

246
Q

What does transpulmonary pressure result in, in terms of the lungs?

A

Keeps the lungs inflated

247
Q

What does the size of the transpulmonary pressure determine?

A

The size of the lungs

248
Q

What is atelactasis?

A

Lung collapse

249
Q

What is a pneumothorax?

A

Presence of air in the pleural cavity

250
Q

What is the equation for Boyle’s Law?

A

P1V1 = P2V2

251
Q

What does Boyle’s law say?

A

Pressure and volume are inversely related

252
Q

What is the diaphragm innervated by?

A

Phrenic nerve

253
Q

What cervical levels supply the phrenic nerve?

A

C 3,4,5

254
Q

What does the diaphragm do during quiet inhalation?

A

It contracts and descends

255
Q

What happens to the pressure and volume of the lungs when the diaphragm contracts?

A

Volume increases and pressure decreases

256
Q

What happens to air flow when the diaphragm contracts?

A

Air flows from an area of high to low pressure and moves into the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure is lower than atmospheric)

257
Q

How much air enters the lungs during quiet inhalation?

A

500 ml (tidal volume)

258
Q

Contraction of the diaphragm is responsible for what percentage of air entering the lungs during quiet inhalation?

A

75%

259
Q

What are the second most important muscles of inhalation?

A

External intercostal muscles

260
Q

What does contraction of the external intercostals do?

A

Elevate the ribs

261
Q

Contraction of the external intercostals is responsible for what percentage of air entering the lungs during quiet inhalation?

A

25%

262
Q

What happens when intrapulmonary pressure is less than atmospheric pressure?

A

Air rushes into the lungs along the pressure gradient

263
Q

When does inspiration end?

A

When pulmonary pressure equals atmospheric pressure

264
Q

What happens to intrapleural pressure when pulmonary pressure decrease?

A

It also decreases

265
Q

What kind of process is quiet exhalation?

A

Passive process

266
Q

What contributes to quiet exhalation?

A

The natural elasticity of the lungs and chest wall for recoil

267
Q

What happens to the diaphragm during quiet exhalation?

A

It relaxes and returns to its original position

268
Q

What happens to the volume in the lungs when the lungs recoil?

A

Volume decreases

269
Q

What happens to the pulmonary pressure when the lungs recoil?

A

Increases above atmospheric

270
Q

What happens when the pulmonary pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure?

A

Air is forced out

271
Q

What muscles are involved in forceful inhalation?

A

Diaphragm
External intercostals
Accessory muscles: SCM, Scalenes, Pectoralis minor

272
Q

What is the name of the volume associated with forceful inhalation?

A

Inspiratory reserve volume

273
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

The total amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled over and above the amount inhaled during tidal volume

274
Q

What is the value of IRV?

A

3100 ml

275
Q

What type of process is forced expiration?

A

Active process

276
Q

What muscles are involved in forced expiration?

A

Abdominal muscles and internal intercostals

277
Q

What do external intercostals play a role in?

A

Quiet inhalation

278
Q

What do internal intercostals play a role in?

A

Forced expiration

279
Q

What is the average ventilatory rate?

A

12-20 breaths/minute

280
Q

How much air is taken in on each breath on average?

A

500 ml

281
Q

What is tidal volume?

A

The air moving in and out of the lungs with each breath

282
Q

What muscles play a role in tidal volume?

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals

283
Q

What is the value of tidal volume?

A

500 ml

284
Q

What is inspiratory reserve volume?

A

Amount of air that can be inspired forcibly beyond the tidal volume

285
Q

What muscles play a role in IRV?

A

Scalenes, SCM, Pectoralis minor, Diaphragm, External intercostals

286
Q

What is the value of IRV?

A

3100

287
Q

WHat is expiratory reserve volume?

A

AMount of air that can be expelled from the lungs after normal tidal volume expiration

288
Q

What is the value of ERV?

A

1200 ml

289
Q

What muscles play a role in ERV?

A

Abdominals and internal intercostals

290
Q

What is residual volume?

A

Amount of air that remains in the lungs

291
Q

What is the value of RV?

A

1200 ml

292
Q

What is the purpose of RV?

A

Helps keep alveoli open and prevents lung collapse

293
Q

What is inspiratory capacity?

A

Total amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal volume expiration

294
Q

What is the equation and value for inspiratory capacity?

A

TV + IRV = 3600

295
Q

What is functional residual capacity?

A

The amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration

296
Q

What is the equation and value for functional residual capacity?

A

RV + ERV = 2400

297
Q

What is vital capacity?

A

Total amount of exchangeable air

298
Q

What is the equation and value of vital capacity?

A

TV + IRV + ERV = 4800

299
Q

What is total lung capacity?

A

Sum of all lung volumes

300
Q

What is the equation and value of total lung capacity?

A

TV + IRV + ERV + RV = 6000

301
Q

What is minute ventilation?

A

Volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute

302
Q

What is the equation for minute ventilation?

A

500 ml x 12 breaths/min = 6000 ml/min

303
Q

What is anatomical dead space?

A

The volume of air that remains in the airways and is not available for gas exchange

304
Q

What percentage of the tidal volume is dead space?

A

30%

305
Q

What is the value of dead space?

A

150 ml

306
Q

How much air is actually involved in ventilation, when acknowledging the dead space ? (Value)

A

350 ml

307
Q

What is alveolar dead space?

A

When alveoli cease to act in gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction

308
Q

What is forced expiratory volume in one second?

A

THe volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in one second with maximal effort following maximal inhalation

309
Q

In what patients is FEV1 impaired?

A

Obstructive lung disease patients like COPD and asthma

310
Q

What type of medicine is albuterol?

A

Beta 2 agonist causes epi and NE to bind to beta 2 adrenergic receptors on the smooth muscle of the lung, causing bronchodilation

311
Q

What four factors affect pulmonary ventilation?

A
  1. Pressure differences (air moving from H to L)
  2. Surface tension
  3. Compliance of lungs
  4. Airway resistance
312
Q

What creates surface tension on alveoli?

A

Thin layer of alveolar fluid

313
Q

What substance decreases surface tension in alveoli to a physiologic level?

A

Surfactant

314
Q

What is the definition of lung compliance?

A

The measure of change in lung volume that occurs with a given change in transpulmonary pressure

315
Q

What is the equation for lung compliance?

A

CL = delta VL/delta(Ppulm-Pip)

316
Q

The more the lung expands for a given increase in pulmonary pressure, the lesser/greater the compliance?

A

Greater

317
Q

What two factors determine compliance?

A

Distensibility of lung tissue and alveolar surface tension

318
Q

What would be an exhibition of low compliance?

A

Lungs and chest are difficult to expand

319
Q

What causes low compliance?

A

Scar tissue formation
Inadequate surfactant production
Fluid in alveoli

320
Q

What is the major nonelastic source of airway resistance?

A

Friction encountered in the airways

321
Q

What is the equation for flow (F)?

A

F = delta P/R

322
Q

What do small changes in pressure result in?

A

Large changes in volume of gas flow

323
Q

What happens to resistance and diameter when smooth muscle contracts?

A

Resistance increases and bronchoconstriction

324
Q

In what sized bronchi is there the greatest resistance to air flow?

A

Medium sized bronchi

325
Q

Why is resistance not really a problem in airways?

A

First part of airways have huge lumen and smaller bronchioles have a large combined cross section area

326
Q

What nerve impulse causes bronchodilation?

A

Sympathetic nervous system with beta 2 adrenergic receptors

327
Q

What is eupnea?

A

Normal quiet breathing pattern

328
Q

What is costal breathing?

A

Shallow breaths

329
Q

What is diaphragmatic breathing?

A

Deep abdominal breaths

330
Q

What are some signs of increased work of breathing?

A

Nasal flaring in infants
Pursed lip breathing
Retractions (suprasternal, intercostal, subcostal)

331
Q

What is Dalton’s Law?

A

Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present

332
Q

What does Dalton’s Law say about the some of all pressures?

A

THe total pressure of a mixutre of gases is the sum of pressure exerted independently

333
Q

What is the percentage of oxygen in room air?

A

21%

334
Q

According to Dalton’s Law, what is the partial pressure of oxygen at atmospheric?

A

21%x760 = 159

335
Q

What causes a faster rate of diffusion?

A

Greater difference in pressure (moving from high to low)

336
Q

What is Henry’s Law?

A

When gas is in contact with liquid, gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure

337
Q

What does Henry’s Law tell us if a partial pressure of a gas is high?

A

It will dissolve faster into the liquid

338
Q

What happens to a gas’s solubility when temperature increases?

A

Solubility decreases

339
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli?

A

105

340
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the capillaries in the lungs?

A

40

341
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the systemic capillaries?

A

100

342
Q

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissue cells?

A

40

343
Q

What is diffusion due to?

A

The differences in partial pressures

344
Q

What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the systemic tissues?

A

45

345
Q

What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the systemic capillaries?

A

40

346
Q

What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the capillaries in the lungs?

A

45

347
Q

What is the partial pressure of CO2 in the alveoli?

A

40

348
Q

What four factors influence the rate of pulmonary and systemic gas exchange?

A
  1. Partial pressures of the gases
  2. Surface area available for exchange
  3. Diffusion difference
  4. Molecular weight and solubility of gases
349
Q

What does diffusion difference affect?

A

The thickness of the membrane - gas exchange is impaired if the thin capillary-alveolar membrane becomes thicker

350
Q

What percentage of oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin?

A

98.5%

351
Q

What happens to the amount of oxygen binding to hemoglobin when the partial pressure of oxygen increases?

A

Increased binding

352
Q

How many oxygen molecules can hemoglobin bind?

A

4

353
Q

What is Hb and O2 called?

A

Oxyhemoglobin

354
Q

What is reduced hemoglobin?

A

Hb that has released an O2 (HHb, deoxyhemoglobin)

355
Q

What happens to the hemoglobin molecule after one molecule of oxygen binds?

A

It changes shape making it easier to bind 2, 3, and 4

356
Q

What happens to the hemoglobin molecule after one molecule of oxygen releases?

A

It is easier to unload 2, 3, and 4

357
Q

What does the affinity of Hb for O2 change with?

A

O2 saturation (how many molecules are bound)

358
Q

What happens to Hb affinity for O2 when partial pressure of O2 is high?

A

Hb binds with large amounts of oxygen - almost fully saturated

359
Q

What happens to the Hb affinity for O2 when the partial pressure of O2 is low?

A

Hb is partially saturated

360
Q

What does the O2-Hb dissociation curve show?

A

How local partial pressure of oxygen controls oxygen loading and unloading from hemoglobin

361
Q

What is the O2 Sat when PP is 100 mm Hg?

A

95-100%

362
Q

WHat is the O2 Sat when PP is 40 mm Hg?

A

75%

363
Q

At what partial pressures of oxygen does the Hb still stay almost completely saturated?

A

80-100 mm Hg

364
Q

What is the normal range of partial pressure of CO2?

A

35-45 mm Hg

365
Q

What is the normal range of pH for the body?

A

7.35-7.45

366
Q

What is the normal range for amount of bicarbonate ions?

A

21-28 mEq/L

367
Q

What does it mean when the curve is shifted to the left?

A

Hb affinity for O2 increases, harder to unload oxygen to the tissues

368
Q

What does it mean when the curve is shifted to the right?

A

Hb affinity for O2 decreases, easier to unload oxygen to the tissues

369
Q

What conditions shift the curve to the right?

A

Increased temperature
Decreased pH
Increased CO2
In general, when there is a need for more O2 in the tissues

370
Q

What is the Bohr effect?

A

Acidosis weakens the Hb-O2 bond and O2 is released to the tissues more readily

371
Q

What does decreased Hb affinity mean in terms of oxygen unloading?

A

Better oxygen unloading

372
Q

What does increased Hb affinity mean in terms of oxygen unloading?

A

Harder oxygen unloading

373
Q

What percent of CO2 is transported dissolved in blood?

A

9%

374
Q

What percent of CO2 is transported chemically bound to hemoglobin?

A

13%

375
Q

What percent of CO2 is transported in bicarbonate ions in plasma?

A

78%

376
Q

What is the Haldane effect?

A

The lower the partial pressure of O2 and Hb saturation, the more CO2 can be carried in the blood

377
Q

Where does CO2 bind to the hemoglobin molecule?

A

The amino acids of the globin, not the iron of the heme group

378
Q

What is the molecular formula for bicarbonate?

A

HCO3-

379
Q

What enzyme catalyzes Dr. Tucker’s favorite equation?

A

Carbonic anhydrase

380
Q

What spinal levels does the sympathetic nervous system stem from the innervates the lungs?

A

T1-T5

381
Q

What nerve does the parasympathetic nervous system innervate the lungs through?

A

Vagus CN X

382
Q

Does the sympathetic nervous system cause bronchodilation or constriction?

A

Bronchodilation

383
Q

Does the parasympathetic nervous system cause bronchodilation or constriction?

A

Bronchoconstriction

384
Q

Where are the respiratory centers of the brain?

A

Reticular formation of the medulla and pons

385
Q

What does the medulla do in regulating respiration?

A

Regulates rate and depth of breathing

386
Q

What are the two groups of the respiratory center?

A

Ventral respiratory group

Dorsal respiratory group

387
Q

What does the dorsal respiratory group do?

A

Communicates info from peripheral stretch and chemoreceptors to the VRG

388
Q

What does the ventral respiratory group do?

A

Rhythm generating and integrative center

389
Q

What is the VRG similar to?

A

SA node in the heart

390
Q

What nerves transmit the pulses from the VRG to the diaphragm and intercostals when inspiratory neurons fire?

A

Phrenic and intercostal nerves

391
Q

What happens to breathing when expiratory nerves fire?

A

Output stops and expiration occurs passively

392
Q

How long is an average inspiration?

A

2 seconds

393
Q

How long is an average expiration?

A

3 seconds

394
Q

What does the VRG do during hypoxia?

A

Generates gasping breaths

395
Q

What happens when a specific cluster of the VRG is depressed?

A

Respiration stops (as with overdose or alcohol)

396
Q

What do the pontine respiratory centers do?

A

Influence and modify activity of medullary neurons, fine tuning breathing rhythms

397
Q

What are the two pontine respiratory centers?

A

Apneustic center and pneumotaxic center

398
Q

What does the apneustic center do?

A

Stimulates inspiration via stimulation of the DRG

399
Q

What does the pneumotaxic center do?

A

Inhibits activity of the DRG and apneustic center, initiates the process of forceful exhalation

400
Q

What part of the brain activates voluntary control of breathing?

A

Cortex of the brain

401
Q

What part of the brain activates emotional altering of respiration?

A

Hypothalamus and limbic system

402
Q

What is the most important factor influencing depth and rate of breath? What other two factors also?

A

CO2 levels most importantly, also O2 and H+

403
Q

What are the two chemoreceptors?

A

Central and peripheral

404
Q

Where are the central chemoreceptors?

A

Medulla

405
Q

Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors?

A

Aorta and carotid

406
Q

What is hypercapnea?

A

Increased CO2 levels

From Flashcardlet (133 decks)

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