CAUSAL FACTORS Flashcards
- identify the different types of explanation that are common in abnormal psychology - describe the major research methods - identify the key features of, and differences in, the major viewpoints of abnormal psychology. (95 cards)
1
Q
If, and only if, X (e.g experience of physical abuse in childhood) is shown to occur before Y (e.g depression in later life) we can we infer that X
A) causal risk factor
B) causes depression
C) is a risk factor
D) fixed marker
A
C) is a risk factor
2
Q
if the experience of child abuse can be changed, what is it considered?
A) variable marker
B) variable risk factor
C) fixed marker
D) causal risk factor
A
B) variable risk factor
3
Q
if the experience of child abuse can not be changed, what is it considered?
A) variable marker
B) variable risk factor
C) fixed marker
D) causal risk factor
A
C) fixed marker
4
Q
if changing variable X leads to a change in variable Y, then
A) X is considered to be a causal risk factor for condition Y
B) Y is considered a variable marker of X
C) X is considered a variable marker of Y
D) Y is considered to be a causal risk factor for condition X
A
A) X is considered to be a causal risk factor for condition Y
5
Q
if changing variable X does not lead to a change in variable Y, then
A) X is considered to be a causal risk factor for condition Y
B) Y is considered a variable marker of X
C) X is considered a variable marker of Y
D) Y is considered to be a causal risk factor for condition X
A
C) X is considered a variable marker of Y
6
Q
Dr. Fox studies the causes of depression. In other words, she looks at factors that play a role in the ________ of depression.
a. etiology
b. epidemiology
c. prevalence
d. resiliency
A
a. etiology
7
Q
Etiology is ________
A) a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior.
B) the causal pattern of abnormal behaviour
C) a predisposition toward developing a disorder.
D) a condition that makes it less likely a person will experience the negative consequences of stress.
A
B) the causal pattern of abnormal behaviour
8
Q
general paresis (Y)—a degenerative brain disorder—cannot develop unless a person has previously contracted syphilis (X) is an example of what?
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
B) necessary cause
9
Q
a necessary cause is
A) a condition without which the effect cannot occur
B) a condition with which the effect must occur
C) one that increases the probability of a disorder develop-ing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur
D) contribute to a predisposition to develop a disorder
A
A) a condition without which the effect cannot occur
10
Q
a necessary cause
A)
B) is a characteristic that must exist for a disorder to occur
C) is a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder
D) contribute to a predisposition to develop a disorder
A
B) is a characteristic that must exist for a disorder to occur
11
Q
a sufficient cause is
A) a condition without which the effect cannot occur
B) a condition with which the effect must occur
C) one that increases the probability of a disorder develop-ing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur
D) contribute to a predisposition to develop a disorder
A
B) a condition with which the effect must occur
12
Q
Huntington’s chorea—a rare degenerative brain disorder of the central nervous system—which can develop only if the person has the necessary gene is an example of what?
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
B) necessary cause
13
Q
To date, most mental disorders have not been found to have ________, although there continues to be a search for such causes
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
B) necessary cause
14
Q
one current theory hypothesizes that hopelessness (X) is a _________ of depression (Y)
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
A) sufficient cause
15
Q
a cause of a disorder is a condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
A) sufficient cause
16
Q
a cause in which one that increases the probability of a disorder develop-ing but is neither necessary nor sufficient for the disorder to occur.
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
D) contributory cause
17
Q
if X occurs, then the probability of Y occurring increases
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
D) contributory cause
18
Q
parental rejection could increase the probability that a child will later have difficulty in handling close personal relationships or could increase the probability that being rejected in a relationship in adulthood will precipitate depression - what is this an example of?
A) sufficient cause
B) necessary cause
C) risk factor
D) contributory cause
A
D) contributory cause
19
Q
Some ca usal factors occurring relatively early in life may not show their effects for many years, what are this known as?
A) reinforcing contributory causes
B) distal risk factors
C) proximal risk factors
D) causal patterns
A
B) distal risk factors
20
Q
factors that operate shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a disorder are known as what?
A) reinforcing contributory causes
B) distal risk factors
C) proximal risk factors
D) causal patterns
A
C) proximal risk factors
21
Q
A crushing disappointment at school or work or severe difficulties with a school friend or a marital partner are examples of _______ that could lead to depression
A) reinforcing contributory causes
B) distal risk factors
C) proximal risk factors
D) causal patterns
A
C) proximal risk factors
22
Q
a condition that tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already occurring
A) reinforcing contributory cause
B) distal risk factor
C) proximal risk factor
D) causal pattern
A
A) reinforcing contributory cause
23
Q
a depressed person’s behavior alienates friends and family, leading to a greater sense of rejection that adds to the existing depression
A) reinforcing contributory cause
B) distal risk factor
C) proximal risk factor
D) causal pattern
A
A) reinforcing contributory cause
24
Q
When more than one causal factor is involved, as is often the case, the term _____ is used
A) alienation pattern
B) reinforcing pattern
C) risk pattern
D) causal pattern
A
D) causal pattern
25
a predisposition toward developing a disorder that can derive from biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal factors
A) is called a diathesis
B) increases the likelihood of developing any given disorder
C) is a distal, sufficient cause of a mental disorder
D) is a biological vulnerability
A) is called a diathesis
26
the response or experience of an individual to demands that he or she perceives as taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources
A) eustress
B) depression
C) anxiety
D) stress
D) stress
27
the diathesis results from one or more
A) relatively distal necessary or contributory causes but is generally not sufficient to cause the disorder
B) relatively distal necessary or sufficient causes but is generally not sufficient to cause the disorder
C) A) relatively distal necessary or contributory causes but is sufficient to cause the disorder
D) relatively distal necessary or sufficient causes but is generally sufficient to cause the disorder
A) relatively distal necessary or contributory causes but is generally not sufficient to cause the disorder
28
in the diathesis stress model, a stressor is
A) a distal, sufficient cause of a mental disorder.
B) a necessary or contributory cause that is distal from the onset of symptoms.
C) a necessary or contributory cause that is proximal to the onset of symptoms.
D) a biological vulnerability.
C) a necessary or contributory cause that is proximal to the onset of symptoms.
29
the additive model of diathesis stress theory proposes that
A) people with a very high level of a diathesis may need a very large amount of stress to develop the disorder.
B) a person with a high level of a diathesis may need only a small amount of stress before a disorder develops
C) some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect
D) someone with no genes for the disorder will never develop the disorder.
B) a person with a high level of a diathesis may need only a small amount of stress before a disorder develops
30
the additive model of diathesis stress theory proposes that
A) a person with no diathesis or a very low level of diathesis could still develop a disorder when faced with high levels of stress
B) some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect
C) people with a very high level of a diathesis may need a very large amount of stress to develop the disorder.
D) stress might have no association with the likelihood of developing a disorder in the absence of a diathesis
A) a person with no diathesis or a very low level of diathesis could still develop a disorder when faced with high levels of stress
31
the interactive model of diathesis stress theory proposes that
A)
B) some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect
C)
D)
B) some amount of diathesis must be present before stress will have any effect
32
a model of diathesis stress suggesting that there is an interaction between the two variables in which the effect between one variable (e.g. stress) and the outcome (e.g. disorder) varies at different levels of the third variable (e.g. diathesis)
A) proactive model
B) additive model
C) interactive model
D) moderating model
C) interactive model
33
a model of diathesis stress suggesting that stress might have no association with the likelihood of developing a disorder in the absence of a diathesis (e.g., no genetic predisposition to depres-sion), whereas for someone with the diathesis, the likeli-hood of developing the disorder might go up with increasing levels of stress.
A) proactive model
B) additive model
C) interactive model
D) moderating model
C) interactive model
34
factors that decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes among those at risk
A) modifiers of genetic problems
B) resilience
C) psychopathology
D) protective factor
D) protective factor
35
a protective factor is
A) a distal causal factor for a mental disorder.
B) something that actively buffers against the likelihood of a negative outcome among those with some risk factor(s)
C) something that buffers against the likelihood of a positive outcome among those with some risk factor(s)
D) something that increases the likelihood of a predisposition toward a disorder
B) something that actively buffers against the likelihood of a negative outcome among those with some risk factor(s)
36
protective factors are
A) not simply the absence of a risk factor
B) the absence of a risk factor
C) the contribution of negative outcomes
D) the sum total of buffers against negative outcomes
A) not simply the absence of a risk factor
37
Protective factors most often, but not always, lead to
__________ —the ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances.
A) happiness
B) accomodation
C) assimilation
D) resilience
D) resilience
38
some stressors paradoxically pro-mote coping and this “steeling” or “inoculation” effect is more likely to occur with
A) moderate stressors than with mild or extreme stressors
B) mild stressors than with extreme stressors
C) extreme stressors than with moderate or mild stressors
D) no stressors than with mild or extreme stressors
A) moderate stressors than with mild or extreme stressors
39
a term used to describe the phenomenon that “some individuals have a relatively good outcome despite suffering risk experiences that would be expected to bring about serious sequelae”
A) competence
B) resilience
C) connection
D) protective
B) resilience
40
what of the following is NOT true regarding resilience
A) it should be thought of as an all-or-none capacity
B) if a child’s fundamental systems of adaptation are operating normally, then most threatening circumstances will have minimal impact on
C) an everyday way of thinking of resilience is in terms of “over-coming the odds” against you
D) problems with resilience tend to arise when one or more adaptation systems is weak to begin with
A) it should be thought of as an all-or-none capacity
41
in distinguishing between causes of abnormal behavior that lie within and are part of the biological makeup or prior experience of a person—________ are vulnerabilities, or predispositions—and causes that pertain to current challenges in a person’s life are_______.
A) diathesis ; stressors
B) stressors; diathesis
C) resilience ; stressors
D) stressors ; resilience
A) diatheses ; stressors
42
concentrates on determining what is abnormal at any point in develop-ment by comparing and contrasting it with the normal and expected changes that occur in the course of development
A) abnormal psychopathology
B) developmental psychopathology
C) abnormal psychology
D) developmental psychology
B) developmental psychopathology
43
a perspective in which we try to understand how factors such as genetics, neurobiology, and hormonal responses can influence psychopathology
A) biological
B) biopsychosocial
C) sociocultural
D) psychological
A) biological
44
a perspective that tries to understand how dysfunctional thoughts, feelings, and behaviors can lead to psychopathology.
A) biological
B) biopsychosocial
C) sociocultural
D) psychological
D) psychological
45
a perspective in which we try to understand how social and cultural factors can influence the way that we think about abnormal behavior
A) biological
B) biopsychosocial
C) sociocultural
D) psychological
C) sociocultural
46
vulnerabilities to mental disorders are almost always _______, meaning that they are influenced by multiple genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes, with any one gene having only very small effects
A) phenotypical
B) polygenetic
C) multi genetic
D) genotypical
B) polygenetic
47
personality traits and mental
disorders are influenced by
A) abnormalities in some of the genes on the chromosomes
B) naturally occurring variations of genes known as polymorphisms.
C) anomalies on sex chromosomes
D) both A and B
D) both A and B
48
naturally occurring variations of genes are known as
A) vulnerabilities
B) genetics
C) mutation
D) polymorphisms
D) polymorphisms
49
a genetically vulnerable person has usually inherited a ________ number of genes, or polymorphisms of genes, that operate together in an additive or interactive fashion to ________ vulnerability
A) large; increase
B) small; decrease
C) small; increase
D) large; decrease
A) large; increase
50
multiple polymorphisms of
genes may lead to structural abnormalities in the central nervous, abnormalities in the regulation of brain chemisty and hormone balance or to excesses or deficiencies in the reactivity of the autonomic nervous system, which is involved in
A) mediating many of our emotional responses
B) the interaction between environment and behaviour
C) creating abnormal behaviour
D) genetic influences of abnormal behaviour
A) mediating many of our emotional responses
51
behavior, unlike some physical characteristics such as eye color, is not determined exclusively by genetic endowment, it is a product of
A) the direct effect of environment
B) the direct effect of genes
C) what the organism is consuming
D) the organism's interaction with the environment
D) the organism's interaction with the environment
52
genes can affect behaviour only
A) through behaviour
B) internally
C) indirectly
D) directly
C) indirectly
53
A person’s total genetic endowment is referred to as
her or his
A) passivity
B) phenotype
C) evocative effects
D) genotype
D) genotype
54
The observed structural and functional characteristics that result from an interaction of the genotype and the environment are referred to as a person’s
A) DNA
B) phenotype
C) chromosomes
D) proteins
B) phenotype
55
In most cases, genetic factors are
A) not necessary and sufficient to cause mental disorders but instead can contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop psychopathology that
only happens if there is a significant stressor in the person’s life
B) necessary and sufficient to cause mental disorders and can cause a vulnerability or diathesis to develop psychopathology
C) fully understood by our significant understanding of how genes impact brain chemistry
D) ease research to differentiate between the effects of the environment and the effects of genes.
A) not necessary and sufficient to cause mental disorders but instead can contribute to a vulnerability or diathesis to develop psychopathology that
only happens if there is a significant stressor in the person’s life
56
When the genotype shapes the environmental experi-ences a child has in this way, we refer to this phenomenon as
A) genotype–environment interaction
B) genotype–environment correlation
C) passive genotype interaction
D) active genotype interaction
B) genotype–environment correlation
57
highly intelligent parents may provide a highly stimulating environment for their child, thus creating an environment that will interact in a positive way with the child’s genetic endowment for high intelligence. Conversely, parents who exhibit antisocial behavior tend to create a risky environment characterized by family dysfunction, thereby increasing the probability of certain mental disorders in their children. this is an example of a/an
A) passive effect on the environment
B) evocative effect of genotype on environment.
C) active effect of genotype on environment
D) lack of genotype-environment correlation
A) passive effect on the environment
58
active, happy babies draw out more positive responses from others than do passive, unresponsive infants. Similarly, musically talented children may be picked out at school and given special opportunities
this is an example of a/an
A) passive effect on the environment
B) evocative effect of genotype on environment.
C) active effect of genotype on environment
D) lack of genotype-environment correlation
B) evocative effect of genotype on environment.
59
child seeks out or builds an environment that is congenial—a phenomenon known as “niche building.” For example, extraverted children may seek the com-pany of others, thereby enhancing their own tendencies to be sociable
this is an example of a/an
A) passive effect on the environment
B) evocative effect of genotype on environment.
C) active effect of genotype on environment
D) lack of genotype-environment correlation
C) active effect of genotype on environment
60
Three primary methods have traditionally been used in behavior genetics, the field that focuses on studying the heritability of mental disorders. Which of the following is NOT one of the methods
A) parent method
B) family history method
C) twin study method
D) adoption method
A) parent method
61
The main limitation of the family history method is
A) people who are more closely related genetically also tend to share more similar environments, which makes it difficult to disentangle genetic and environmental effects
B) researchers compare the rates of disorder in the adopted-away offspring of biological parents who have a disorder with those seen in the adopted-away offspring of normal biological parents.
C) there are relatively high concordance rates for identical twins in some of the more severe forms of psychopathology
D) is not conclusive evidence of a genetic con-tribution because it is always possible that identical twins are treated more similarly by their parents and others than are nonidentical twins
A) people who are more closely related genetically also tend to share more similar environments, which makes it difficult to disentangle genetic and environmental effects.
62
if a given disorder or trait were completely heritable, one would expect the _________ —the percentage of twins sharing the disorder or trait—to be 100 percent
A) abnormal behavior
B) concordance rate
C) genetic transmission
D) heritability
B) concordance rate
63
why can we can safely conclude that no mental disorders are completely heritable
A) there are no forms of psychopathology where the concordance rates for identical twins are 100%
B) there are relatively high concordance rates for identical twins in some of
the more severe forms of psychopathology
C) Dizygotic twins develop from two different fertilized eggs and so do not share any more genes than do siblings from the same parents
D)
A) there are no forms of psychopathology where the concordance rates for identical twins are 100%
64
concordance rates for a disorder are expected to be much lower for
A) children
B) monozygotic (MZ) twins
C) dizygotic twins
D) adults
C) dizygotic twins
65
Evidence for genetic transmission of a trait or a disorder can be obtained by comparing the concordance rates between
A) multiple pairs of non identical twins
B) multiple pairs of identical twins
C) one set of identical twins with another set of identical twins
D) identical and nonidentical twins
D) identical and nonidentical twins
66
research has provided evidence that the ______ similarity is more important than the similarity of the _______ behavior
A) parents; genetic
B) genetic ; parents'
C) identical twin ; non identical twin
D) non identical twin; identical twin
B) genetic ; parents'
67
in one variation of the adoption method, the biological parents of individuals who have a given disorder are compared with the biological parents of individuals without the disorder, if there is a genetic influence one expects to find
A) higher rates of the disorder in the in the adopted offspring of the adopted parents who have the disorder
B) higher rates of the disorder in the biological relatives of those with the disorder than in those without the disorder
C) higher rates of the disorder in the biological relatives in those without the disorder than those with the disorder
D) higher rates of disorder in the adopted-away offspring of the biological parents who have the disorder
B) a higher rates of the disorder in the biological relatives of those with the disor-der than in those without the disorder
68
ine one variation of the adoption method, researchers compare the rates of disorder in the adopted away offspring of the biological parents who have a disorder with those seen in the adopted away offspring of normal biological parents
A) higher rates of the disorder in the biological relatives in those without the disorder than those with the disorder
B) higher rates of the disorder in the biological relatives of those with the disorder than in those without the disorder
C) higher rates of disorder in the adopted-away offspring of the biological parents who have the disorder
D) higher rates of the disorder in the in the adopted offspring of the adopted parents who have the disorder
C) higher rates of disorder in the adopted-away offspring of the biological parents who have the disorder
69
what is not a misconception about studies of genetic influences on behavior, traits, and psychopathology
A) Genetic effects diminish with age
B) Genes impose a limit on potential
C) Disorders that run in families must be genetic, and those that do not run in families must not be genetic
D) environmental factors can have a major impact on the level of that trait
D) environmental factors can have a major impact on the level of that trait
70
______ environmental influences are those that would make children in a family more similar, whether the influence occurs within the family (e.g., family discord and poverty) or in the environment (e.g., two high-quality schools, with one twin going to each)
A) linkage
B) unique
C) nonshared
D) shared
D) shared
71
_______ environmental influences that include unique experiences at school and also some unique features of upbringing in the home, such as a parent treating one child in a qualitatively different way from another
A) linkage
B) unique
C) nonshared
D) shared
C) nonshared
72
An example of _______ environmental influences occurs when parents who are quarreling and showing hostility to one another draw some children into the conflict while the other children are able to remain outside it.
A) linkage
B) unique
C) nonshared
D) shared
C) nonshared
73
compared with ______ environmental influences, ________ influenced appear to be more important
A) unique; nonshared
B) shared; unique
C) shared; nonshared
D) nonshared; shared
C) shared; nonshared
74
linkage analysis and association studies attempt to determine
A) the actual location of genes responsible for mental disorders
B) quantitative estimates of the degree of genetic influence for different disorders
C) disorders that are influenced by many different genes spread over multiple chromosomes
D) genetic markers for dopamine functioning
A) the actual location of genes responsible for mental disorders
75
what do all heritability studies have in common?
A) they attempt to obtain quantitative estimates of the degree of genetic influence for different disorders
B) they attempt obtain qualitative estimates of the degree of genetic influence for different disorders
C) attempt to determine the actual location of genes responsible for mental disorders
D) they capitalize on several currently known locations on chromosomes of genes for other inherited physical characteristics or bio-logical processes
A) they attempt to obtain quantitative estimates of the degree of genetic influence for different disorders
76
______ are very long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that are present at various locations on chromosomes.
A) sex chromosomes
B) allele
C) genes
D) RNA
C) genes
77
what are the chain like structures within a cell nucleus that contain genes?
A) alleles
B) chromosomes
C) RNA
D) DNA
B) chromosomes
78
when do most mental disorders appear for the first time?
A) childhood
B) adolescence
C) adulthood
D) both B and C
D) both B and C
79
studies of mental disorders that capitalze on several currently known locations on chromosomes of genes for other inherited physical characteristics or bio-logical processes
A) ABAB study
B) linkage analysis
C) association study
D) family history or pedigree method
B) linkage analysis
80
Genetic research strat-egy in which occurrence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome
A) ABAB study
B) linkage analysis
C) association study
D) family history or pedigree method
B) linkage analysis
81
what is one limitation of linkage analysis studies?
A)
B) people who are more closely related genetically also tend to share more similar environments, which makes it difficult to disentangle genetic and environmental effects
C) coming up with replicable results in such studies is inconclusive as some disorders are influenced by many different genes spread over multiple chromosomes
D)
C) coming up with replicable results in such studies is inconclusive as some disorders are influenced by many different genes spread over multiple chromosomes
82
linkage analysis techniques have been most successful in locating the genes for
A) locating genes associated with schizophrenia
B) complex disorders
C) single gene brain disorders
D) the location of a gene for bipolar disorder on chromosome 11
C) single gene brain disorders
83
genetic research strategy comparing frequency of certain genetic markers known to be located on particular chromosomes in people with and without a particular disorder
A) ABAB study
B) linkage analysis
C) association study
D) family history or pedigree method
C) association study
84
For most mental disorders that are known to be influenced polygenically, ________ studies are more promising than _______ studies for identifying small effects of any particular gene.
A) MZ twin; DZ twin
B) association; linkage
C) linkage; association
D) family history; adoption
B) association; linkage
85
a study found that genetic markers for certain aspects of domapine functioning were present significantly more frequently in children with hyperactivity than in children without hyperactivity. leading researchers to infer that some of the genes involved with hyperactivity are located near the known genetic markers for dopamine functioning. what kind of study did the researchers do?
A) ABAB study
B) linkage analysis
C) association study
D) family history or pedigree method
C) association study
86
flexibility of the brain in making changes in organization and function in response to pre-and post-natal experiences, stress, diet, disease, drugs, maturation etc
A) experience dependent plasticity
B) neural plasticity
C) prenatal experiences
D) receptor circuits
B) neural plasticity
87
what approach acknowledges that genetics influence neural activity, which in turn affects behaviour, which in turn influenced environment, but that all these influenced are bidirectional
A) biological approach
B) developmental systems approach
C)
D)
B) developmental systems approach
88
reuptake of neurotransmitters is the process by which neurotransmitters are
A) destroyed by an enzyme
B) reabsorbed by the axon
C) are repeatedly released into the synapse
D) stimulate the post-synaptic neuron to fire
B) reabsorbed by the axon
89
Neurons that are sensitive to a particular neurotransmitter tend to cluster together, forming neural paths between different parts of the brain known as
A) neuronal circuits
B) chemical circuits
C)
D)
B) chemical circuits
90
(1) norepinephrine, (2) dopamine, (3) serotonin, belong to a class of neurotransmitters called ______ because each is synthesized from a single amino acid
A) monoamines
B) antagonists
C) amino acids
D) peptides
v
91
Medications that facilitate the effects of a neurotransmitter on the post-synaptic neuron are called ________, and those that oppose or inhibit the effects of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic neuron are called ________.
A) antagonists; agonists
B) agonists; antagonists
B) agonists; antagonists
92
Our central nervous system is linked to the endocrine system (in what is known as the neuroendocrine system) by the effects of the hypothalamus on the __________
A) hippocampus
B) pituitary gland
C) amygdala
D) cerebellum
B) pituitary gland
93
a hormonal feedback system that becomes activated by stress and results in the production of cortisol.
A) androgens
B) corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
C) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
D) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis/system
D) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis/system
94
differences in characteristic emotional and arousal responses to various stimuli and in tendency to approach, withdraw, or attend to various situations
A) temperament
B) social withdrawal
C) disposition
D) personality
A) temperament
95
what have some studies suggested about parental abuse
A)
B) that gross neglect may be wore than having an abusive relationship
C)
D)
B) that gross neglect may be wore than having an abusive relationship
