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DAT Lymphatic and Digestive Systems Flashcards

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1
Q

Osmoregulation

A

maintenance of
osmotic pressure of fluids by control of
water and salt concentrations

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2
Q

Marine fish osmoregulation

A

body is hypotonic
to the environment → water is
constantly lost by osmosis, so these
fish are constantly drinking water,
rarely urinating, and secreting
accumulated salts through gills

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3
Q

freshwater fish osmoregulation

A

body is
hypertonic to the environment →
water moves in, so the fish are rarely
drinking water, constantly urinating,
and absorbing salt though gills

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4
Q

Annelids excretory system

A

excrete CO2 directly through
moist skin

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5
Q

Nephridia (metanephridia)

A

functional unit of excretion that occur
in pairs within each segment of
annelids (earthworms).

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6
Q

Platyhelminthes excretory system

A

possess flame cells/
flame bulbs, which are bundles of flame
cells that combine to form
protonephridia; they are distributed
along a branched tube system that
permeates the flatworm

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7
Q

Arthropods excretory system

A

CO2 is released from
tissue via trachea, which lead to the
external air via spiracles

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8
Q

Malpighian tubules

A

found in most
terrestrial arthropods and are
tubules that attach at the junction
between the midgut and the
hindgut. They collect body fluids
from the hemolymph that bathes
the cells. The fluids are deposited at
the junction of the midgut and
hindgut

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9
Q

what is nitrogenous waste usually converted to?

A

converted
to ammonia, which is also toxic.

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10
Q

4 places excretion occurs in humans

A

lungs, liver,
skin, and kidney:

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11
Q

Lungs

A

CO2 and H2O (gas) diffuse from
the blood and are continually exhaled

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12
Q

Liver

A

largest internal organ that
processes nitrogenous wastes, blood
pigment wastes, other chemicals,
produces urea via the urea cycle

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13
Q

Skin

A

sweat glands in the skin excrete
water and dissolved salts to regulate
body temperature

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14
Q

what is the largest overall organ

A

skin

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15
Q

Kidney

A

i. Excrete waste via the path - kidneys
→ ureter → bladder → urethra
ii. Maintain homeostasis of body fluid
volume and solute composition
iii. Regulate blood pressure

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16
Q

regions of the kidney

A

i. The outer cortex
ii. Inner medulla
iii. Renal pelvis which drains to the
ureter

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17
Q

nephrons

A

composed of a renal
corpuscle and renal tubule, and function to
reabsorb nutrients, salts, and water.

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18
Q

Renal corpuscle

A

contains
the glomerulus, which acts as a sieve, and
Bowman’s capsule, which encloses the
glomerulus.

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19
Q

2 arterioles of Bowmans capsule

A

an afferent
arteriole that leads into the glomerulus,
and an efferent arteriole that leads out of
the glomerulus

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20
Q

what happens in the renal corpuscle

A

Hydrostatic pressure forces plasma
through the fenestrations (small
pores) of the glomerular endothelium
and into Bowman’s capsule. These
fenestrations screen out blood cells
and large proteins from entering
Bowman’s capsule, After the efferent arteriole passes out
of the glomerulus, it just webs around
the entire nephron structure as the
peritubular capillaries (which surround
the proximal convoluted tubule and
distal convoluted tubule and reabsorb
materials) and vasa recta (which
surrounds the Loop of Henle in the
kidney’s medulla and maintains the
concentration gradient) before
dumping back into the renal branch
of the renal vein

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21
Q

When substances are reabsorbed from
the tubules (or secreted into them), it takes place in…

A

the interstitium. It is this network of capillaries that lets
us reabsorb into/secrete from the blood.

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22
Q

the renal corpuscle leads to…

A

Renal tubule

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23
Q

components of the renal tubule

A

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), Loop of Henle, Distal convoluted tubule, Collecting duct

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24
Q

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

A

where active reabsorption of almost
all glucose, amino acids, and some
NaCl, as well as passive reabsorption
of K+ and HCO3

-, begins. Water
follows these ions out so the cortex is
not salty. Most reabsorption takes
place here.

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25
Loop of Henle compnenets
ascending loop and descending loop
26
largest component of the nephron?
loop of henle
27
Descending loop
only permeable to water (but this water is picked up by the vasa recta so the medulla stays salty) via lots of aquaporins. The solute concentration in the tube increases as a result
28
Ascending loop
makes the renal medulla salty: first passively and then actively by pumping out NaCl. The ascending loop is also impermeable to water! Solute concentration in the tube decreases as a result.
29
Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
more reabsorption of glucose, ions and water occurs here so the cortex isn’t salty.
30
Collecting duct
collects the remaining filtrate. What happens here (concentrated or dilute urine) is highly dependent on what hormones are acting on it.
31
Path of urea through collecting duct:
1. Urea first descends to the medulla (salty part) where antidiuretic hormones (ADH/vasopressin) can make more water leave from urine by increasing permeability of the collecting duct (via increased aquaporins) → urine is even more concentrated. Note that one collecting duct is shared by many nephrons. entire process of urine formation can be summarized in four overarching steps:2. Aldosterone can also act on the collecting duct by increasing Na+ reabsorption, resulting in water passively following Na+ 3. By the time urine emerges, it usually has varying amounts of: H2O, urea, NaCl, K+, and creatinine
32
entire process of urine formation can be summarized in four overarching steps:
filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and concentration
33
filtration (urine formation)
the fluid that goes through the glomerulus (afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent arteriole) to the rest of the nephron is called filtrate, which is pushed into Bowman’s capsule. Particles that are too large to filter through the glomerulus (such as blood cells or albumin) remain in the circulatory system. i. This is a passive process that is driven by the hydrostatic pressure of blood.
34
Reabsorption
glucose, salts, and amino acids are reabsorbed from filtrate and return to the blood. This process takes place primarily in the PCT via active transport.
35
Secretion
substances such as acids, bases, ammonia, drugs, and ions are secreted by both passive and active transport from the peritubular capillaries and into the nephron
36
Concentration
when we’re dehydrated, the volume of fluid in the bloodstream is low, so we need to make small amounts of concentrated urine (and increase our blood fluids). ADH prevents water loss; it increases water retention by making the collecting duct more permeable to water. When blood pressure is low, aldosterone increases reabsorption of Na+ by the DCT and collecting duct, which increases water retention
37
where does filtration occur?
renal corpuscle
38
where does reabsorption/secretion occur?
PCT
39
filter becomes more conc as it moves thru what part of loop of henle
down loop
40
where does DCT dump into
collecting duct
41
macula densa,
monitor the filtrate pressure in the DCT.
42
Osmolarity Gradient
created by the entering and exiting of solutes, and increases from the cortex to the medulla
43
Aquatic animals nitrogenous waste
excrete NH3 and NH4 directly into the water
44
Mammals, sharks, and amphibians nitrogenous waste
convert NH3 into urea
45
Birds, insects, reptiles nitrogenous waste
secrete uric acid (is insoluble in water and is excreted as a solid to conserve water)
46
Excretion in Plants
Excess CO2, waste O2, and H2O (gas) leave via diffusion through the stomata and lenticels via transpiration
47
Intracellular digestion
takes place within the cells and occurs in amoeba, paramecium, and porifera. Food is usually phagocytized, and fuses with food vacuoles and lysosomes to break down nutrients
48
Extracellular digestion
takes place outside the cells usually in a food compartment continuous with the animal’s body
49
Amoeba digestive system
food capture via phagocytosis → food vacuoles → fuse with lysosomes
50
Paramecium digestive system
cilia sweep food into the cytopharynx. Food vacuoles form and move toward the anterior end of the cell
51
Invertebrate Digestion
rely on either physical breakdown or chemical breakdown
52
Cnidarians digestion
hydra rely on intracellular and extracellular digestion
53
Annelids digestion
earthworms have a one-way digestive tract i. Crop - food storage ii. Gizzard - grind food iii. Intestine - contains typhlosole to increase surface area for absorption
54
Arthropods digestion
- also have jaws for chewing and salivary glands
55
Molluscs digestion
have radula, a tongue/tooth structure that is located in the mouth and breaks down food
56
Four groups of molecules are encountered in the digestive system:
starches, proteins, fats, nucleic acids
57
Mouth (digestion)
salivary amylase breaks down starch into maltose by breaking starch’s a-glycosidic bonds. Chewing creates a bolus which is swelled, and also increases the surface area of food, thus exposing it to more enzymes
58
Pharynx (throat) (digestion)
- area where food and air passages cross; epiglottis, a flap of tissue that blocks the trachea so only solid and liquid enter, is located here
59
Esophagus (digestion)
tube leading to stomach, food travels by contractions (wave motion peristalsis via smooth muscle), and saliva lubricates this
60
Stomach (digestion)
secretes gastric juice (digestive enzymes and HCl) and food enters the stomach through the lower esophageal/cardiac sphincter. The stomach contains exocrine glands (local secretion by way of duct) within gastric pits (indentation in stomach that denote entrance to the gastric glands) which contain secreting chief cells, parietal cells, G cells, and mucous cells (secrete mucus to prevent backwash)
61
storage (stomach
stomach contains accordion-like folds that allow 2-4 liters of storage
62
mixing (stomach)
mixes food with H2O and gastric juice, forming chyme, a creamy medium
63
Physical breakdown (stomach)
muscles are activated to break down food
64
Chemical breakdown (stomach)
pepsin (secreted by chief cells) digests proteins; pepsinogen → pepsin activated by HCl, which is secreted by parietal cells
65
Peptic ulcers
caused by failure of mucosal lining to protect stomach.
66
Controlled release (stomach)
chyme enters the small intestine via the pyloric sphincter
67
Mucous cells
secrete mucus that lubricates and protects stomach’s epithelial lining from acid environment.
68
Chief cells
- secrete pepsinogen
69
Parietal cells
secrete HCl; intrinsic factor that assists ileum’s B-12 absorption.
70
G cells
secrete gastrin, a large peptide hormone which is absorbed into blood and stimulates parietal cell to secrete HCl
71
acetylcholine,
which increases secretion of each cell.
72
ECL cells
neuroendocrine cells in the digestive tract; gastrin stimulates them to release histamine which in turn stimulates parietal cells to produce gastric acid
73
Stomach pH
full stomach has a pH of 2, which is extremely acidic and beneficial for killing ingested bacteria, and is the optimal pH for pepsin!
74
Rugal folds
stomach contains these folds / rippled areas to increase the surface area of the stomach lumen
75
Overall note
protein digestion begins in the stomach, but no absorption whatsoever occurs in the stomach
76
Food goes from the stomach to the small intestine through...
the pyloric sphincter.
77
3 portions of the small intestine
the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum.
78
Duodenum
continues breakdown of starches and proteins as well as remaining food types (fats and nucleotides)
79
Jejunum
absorption of nutrients
80
Ileum
absorption of nutrients, longest portion and contains Peyer’s patches, which are large aggregates of lymphoid tissue
81
90% of digestion and absorption occurs in the
small intestine
82
what connects small intestine to large intestine
the ileocecal valve.
83
Structure of small intestine
wall has finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area to allow for greater digestion and absorption. Each villi has a lacteal, a lymph vessel surrounded by a capillary network that functions for nutrient absorption. Villi have microvilli, allowing for greater surface area.
84
Pancreas
Secretes bicarbonate and acts as an exocrine gland releasing major enzymes from acinar cells via pancreatic duct → duodenum
85
Liver
Produces bile, which contains no enzymes but emulsifies fats and contains sodium bicarbonate that helps neutralize stomach acid.
86
Chyme moves through intestines via
peristalsis
87
Large Intestine (colon)
Here is where water and salts are reabsorbed to form feces; is 1.5 m long,
88
4 parts of large intestine
ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
89
Gastrin
produced by stomach lining when food reaches the stomach or upon sensing of food
90
Secretin
- local peptide hormone from SI, produced by cells lining duodenum in response to HCl; stimulates pancreas to produce bicarbonate (neutralizes the chyme)
91
Cholecystokinin
- secreted by small intestine in response to fat digestates; stimulates gallbladder to release bile and pancreas to release its enzymes. Also decreases motility of stomach → more time for duodenum to digest fat
92
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
produced in response to fat/protein digestates in duodenum; effect = mild decrease of stomach motor activity
93
Grehlin
secreted from stomach wall, initiates hunger
94
Leptin
- secreted from adipose tissue, inhibits hunger
95
Peptide YY
secreted from small intestine and is concerned with hunger and lack of hunger
96
Insulin
secreted from pancreas, encourages storage of glucose as glycogen in the liver
97
Epinephrine
suppresses hunger
98
Intracellular digestion plants and fungi
store primarily starch in seeds, stems, and roots; when nutrients are required, polymers are broken down (into glucose, fatty acid, glycerol, and amino acids) by enzymatic hydrolysis
99
Extracellular digestion fungi (rhizoids of bread molds)
secrete enzymes into bread, producing simple digestive products which are then absorbed by diffusion into rhizoid
100
Blood filtration (liver)
Kupfer cells (specialized macrophages in liver) phagocytize bacteria picked up in intestines
101
Carbohydrate metabolism (liver)
liver maintains normal blood glucose levels via gluconeogeneis (production of glycogen and glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors), glycogenesis, and storage of glycogen
102
Fat metabolism liver
liver synthesizes bile from cholesterol and converts carbohydrates and proteins → fat. Fat metabolism oxidizes fatty acids for energy, and also forms lipoproteins.
103
Protein metabolism liver
liver deaminates amino acids, forms urea from ammonia in blood, synthesizes plasma proteins and nonessential amino acids
104
Detoxification liver
detoxifies chemicals which are then excreted by the liver as part of bile
105
Erythrocyte destruction
Kupfer cells destroy irregular erythrocytes
106
Vitamin storage liver
stores vitamin A, D, and B12. The liver also stores iron by combining it with apoferritin → ferritin
107
Glycogenesis
(formation of glycogen)
108
glycogenolysis
(if blood glucose levels decrease → glycogen broken down to glucose for release)
109

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