2C: Processes of cell division, differentiation and specialization Flashcards
1
Q
Autosomal Cells
A
Diploid (2n) = 46
2
Q
Haploid Cells
A
Haploid (n) = 23
3
Q
Interphase
A
Consists of G1, S, G2; actively dividing cells spend most of their time in this phase
4
Q
Interphase
A
Consists of G1, S, G2; actively dividing cells spend most of their time in this phase
5
Q
G0
A
The cell is simply living and serving its function without any preparation for division
6
Q
Interphase
A
Consists of G1, S, G2; actively dividing cells spend most of their time in this phase;
Chromosomes are in less condensed form known as chromatin (so that DNA is available for RNA Pol to transcribe)
7
Q
G0
A
The cell is simply living and serving its function without any preparation for division
8
Q
G1 Stage [Presynthetic Gap]
A
Cell creates organelles for energy and produces proteins while increases their size; contains a restriction point
9
Q
G1 Stage [Presynthetic Gap]
A
Cell creates organelles for energy and produces proteins while increases their size; contains a restriction point
10
Q
S Stage [Synthesis]
A
Genetic material is replicated so that each daughter cell will have an identical copy; each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids after replication
11
Q
G2 Stage [Postsynthetic Gap]
A
Cell passes through another quality control checkpoint - makes sure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm for both daughter cells
12
Q
M Stage [Mitosis]
A
Consists of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis
13
Q
M Stage [Mitosis]
A
Consists of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis
14
Q
Prophase
A
Nucleus disappears, spindle forms, DNA condenses into chromosomes
15
Q
Metaphase
A
Sister chromatids align along the equator of the cell by attaching their centromeres to the spindle fibers
16
Q
Anaphase
A
Sister chromatids separate at the centromere and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle
17
Q
Prophase
A
Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms
18
Q
Metaphase
A
Chromosomes align along the equator of the cell by attaching their centromeres to the spindle fibers
19
Q
Anaphase
A
Sister chromatids separate at the centromere and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle
20
Q
Telophase
A
Nuclear membrane reforms and spindle apparatus disappears
21
Q
Cyclins & Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
A
Rise and fall during the cell cycle controlling the activity of the cell cycle
22
Q
Cancer
A
Occurs when cell cycle control becomes deranged, allowing damaged cells to undergo mitosis without regard for quality or quantity of the new cells produced
23
Q
Metastasize
A
When cancerous cells produce factors that allow them to escape their site and invade elsewhere
24
Q
Cyokinesis
A
Cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells
25
Centriole Function
Organize the centrosome
26
Aster Function
Formed around each centrosome
27
Kinetochore
Protein structure on chromatids where spindle fibers attach during cell division
28
Kinetochore
Protein structure on chromatids where spindle fibers attach during cell division
29
Nuclear Membrane Breakdown
During Prophase and allows microtubules to attach at kinetochore
30
Nuclear Membrane Reorganization
During Telophase
31
How do chromosomes move?
By use of the spindle fibers during metaphase
32
Reasons for Growth Arrest
Genomic mutation/damage
Lack of nutrients
Contact Inhibition (once they get in contact with other cells they stop)
33
Reasons for Growth Arrest
Genomic mutation/damage
Lack of nutrients
Contact Inhibition (once they get in contact with other cells they stop)
34
Mechanisms that Control the Cell Cycle
Checkpoints within the cycle itself (G1 and G2), Spindle checkpoint; cyclins and CDK
35
Mechanisms that Control the Cell Cycle
Checkpoints within the cycle itself (G1 and G2), Spindle checkpoint; cyclins and CDK
36
Oncogenes
Genes that have the potential to cause cancer; can be due to mutations or excessive expression
37
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death; the cells contents are not released to the environment but rather digested intracellularly
38
Triggers of Apotosis
Cell Damage
Cell Mutations
Developmental Mechanisms
Immune Response
39
Prophase
Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms
40
Cytokinesis
Cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells
41
Triggers of Apotosis
Cell Damage
Cell Mutations
Developmental Mechanisms
Immune Response
42
Meiosis
Produces four non-identical haploid sex cells (gametes)
43
Rounds of Meiotic Division
1. Reductional
| 2. Equational
44
Meiosis I
Homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated from each other
45
Homologues
Chromosomes that are given the same number but are of opposite parental origin
46
Prophase I
Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms; additionally synapsis and crossing over occurs
47
Prophase I
Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms; additionally synapsis and crossing over occurs
48
Metaphase I
Homologues line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate
49
Anaphase I
Homologues segregate to opposite poles of the cell
| -Accounts for segregation and independent assortment
50
Anaphase I
Homologues segregate to opposite poles of the cell
| -Accounts for segregation and independent assortment
51
Telophase I
Chromosomes decondense and the cell may enter interkinesis
52
Telophase I
Chromosomes decondense and the cell may enter interkinesis
53
Meiosis II
Same process as Mitosis
54
Spermatogenesis Outline
Spermatogonium -> Primary Spermatocyte -> Secondary Spermatocyte -> Spermatid
55
Spermatogenesis Outline
Spermatogonium -> Primary Spermatocyte -> Secondary Spermatocyte -> Spermatid
56
Spermatogonium
| [2n]
A diploid cell that undergoes mitosis and creates a primary spermatocyte
57
Primary Spermatocyte
| [2n]
Undergoes Meiosis I and produces a secondary spermatocyte
58
Secondary Spermatocyte
| [n]
Undergoes Meiosis II and produces a spermatid
59
Spermatid
| [n]
Matures into sperm
60
Oogenesis Outline
Oogonium -> Primary Oocyte -> Secondary Oocyte -> Ovum
61
Oogonium
| [2n]
A diploid cell that undergoes mitosis to produce a primary oocyte
62
Primary Oocyte
| [2n]
A diploid cell that undergoes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte
63
Secondary Oocyte
| [n]
A haploid cell that undergoes meiosis II to produce an ovum
64
Site of Sperm Development
Seminiferous Tubules of the Testes
65
Sertoli Cells
Nourish sperm
66
Interstitial Cells of Leydig
Secretes testosterone and other androgens
67
Scrotum
Site of the testes
68
Epididymis
Give sperm motility and store sperm until ejaculation
69
Epididymis
Give sperm motility and store sperm until ejaculation
70
Ejaculation Pathway
Vas Deferens -> Ejaculatory Duct -> Urethra -> Penis
71
Seminal Vesicles
Contribute fructose to nourish sperm and produce alkaline fluid
72
Prostate Gland
Also produces alkaline fluid
73
Bulbourethral Glands
Produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal
74
Bulbourethral Glands
Produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal
75
Semen
Composed of sperm and seminal fluid from the bulbourethral glands, seminal vesicles and prostate glands
76
Semen
Composed of sperm and seminal fluid from the bulbourethral glands, seminal vesicles and prostate glands
77
Sperm Structure
Head, Midpiece and Flagellum
78
Head of Sperm
Contains genetic material and covered in an acrosome that contains enzymes that help the sperm fuse and penetrate the ovum
79
Midpiece of Sperm
Generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria
80
Flagellum of Sperm
Promotes motility
81
Flagellum of Sperm
Promotes motility
82
Ovum (Ova)
Produced in the follicles of the ovaries
83
Ovum (Ova)
Produced in the follicles of the ovaries
84
Polar Body
Uneven portion of the cytokinesis product in oogenesis
85
Polar Body
Uneven portion of the cytokinesis product in oogenesis
86
Zona Pellucida
Surrounds oocytes which is an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protects the oocyte and contain the compounds necessary for sperm binding
87
Corona Radiata
A layer of cells that adhere to the oocyte during ovulation
88
Corona Radiata
A layer of cells that adhere to the oocyte during ovulation
89
Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone
Released from the hypothalamus and causes the release of FSH and LH
90
Function of FSH in Males
Stimulates sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis
91
Function of LH in Males
Stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone
92
Function of Testosterone
Responsible for maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics
93
Function of Testosterone
Responsible for maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics
94
Function of FSH in Females
Stimulates development of the ovarian follicles; produce estrogen and progesterone
95
Function of LH in Females
Stimulates ovulation; produce estrogen and progesterone
96
Primary Oocyte
| [2n]
A diploid cell that undergoes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte
[Arrests in Prophase I]
97
Secondary Oocyte
| [n]
A haploid cell that undergoes meiosis II to produce an ovum
| [Arrests in Metaphase II]
98
Function of LH in Females
Stimulates ovulation; produce estrogen and progesterone
99
Reproductive Sequence
Fertilization -> Implantation -> Development -> Birth
100
Reproductive Sequence
Fertilization -> Implantation -> Development -> Birth
101
Menstrual Cycle Sequence
Follicular Phase -> Ovulation -> Luteal Phase -> Menstruation
102
Follicular Phase
GnRH stimulates FSH and LH which promotes follicle development; estrogen is released which stimulates vascularization and glandularization of the decidua (uterine lining)
103
Ovulation
Stimulated by a surge of LH; surge due to estrogens positive feedback effects
104
Luteal Phase
LH promotes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining.
105
Negative Feedback of GnRH, LH and FSH
Caused by high levels of estrogen and progesterone
106
Menstruation
Occurs if there is no fertilization; endometrial lining is broken off and the block on GnRH production is removed
107
Fertilization Effects
Blastula produces hcG which maintains the corpus luteum
108
Menopause
Occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone
109
Menopause
Occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone
110
Implantation Sequence
Zygote -> Morula -> Blastocyst
111
Developmental Sequence
Blastocyst -> Gastrula -> Neurula
112
Developmental Sequence
Blastocyst -> Gastrula -> Neurula
113
Where does fertilization occur?
In the ampulla of the fallopian tube
114
What happens after the sperm penetrates the corona radiata and zona pellucida?
The sperm establishes the acrosomal apparatus and injects its nucleus; it also releases calcium ions that prevent additional sperm from fertilizing the ovum
115
What is a cortical reaction?
The reaction that prevents additional sperm from fertilizing the egg and increases the metabolic rate of the zygote
116
What is a cortical reaction?
The reaction that prevents additional sperm from fertilizing the egg and increases the metabolic rate of the zygote
117
How do dizygotic twins form?
Two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm
118
How do monozygotic twins form?
Splitting of a zygote into two
119
How do dizygotic (fraternal) twins form?
Two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm
120
How do monozygotic (identical) twins form?
Splitting of a zygote into two
121
How do monozygotic (identical) twins form?
Splitting of a zygote into two
122
Cleavage
Early divisions of cells in the embryo; resulting in a larger number of small cells but the volume remains the same
123
When is the zygote considered an embryo?
After the first cleavage because its no longer considered to be unicellular
124
Indeterminate Cleavage
Results in cells that are capable of becoming any cell in the organism
125
Determinate Cleavage
Results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type
126
Determinate Cleavage
Results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type
127
Morula
A solid mass of cells seen in early development that eventually becomes the blastula (blastocyst)
128
Blastula
A structure that contains blastocoel in its interior and contains trophoblasts and inner cell mass
129
Trophoblasts
Become placental structures
130
Inner Cell Mass
Becomes the developing organism
131
Placenta
Formed when the blastula implants into the endometrial lining
132
Placenta
Formed when the blastula implants into the endometrial lining; provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus as well as removes carbon dioxide and waste products
133
Chorion
Contains chorionic villi which penetrates the endometrium and creates the interface between maternal and fetal blood
134
Yolk Sac
Supports the embryo before the placenta is established
135
Yolk Sac
Supports the embryo before the placenta is established
136
Allantois
Involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac
137
Amnion
Inside the chorion which produces amniotic fluid
138
Amnion
Inside the chorion which produces amniotic fluid
139
Gastrulation
The cells of the blastula rearrange themselves and invaginate into the hollow ball so it creates an inner layer of cells and outer layer of cells and the cells between the two; forms Ecto, Meso and Endoderm
140
Archenteron
Formed with a blastopore at the end through the blastocoel; becomes the anus
141
Ectoderm
Becomes mouth, epidermis, hair, nails, anal canal, epithelia of the nose, lens of the eye and the adrenal medulla
142
Mesoderm
Becomes mostly the musculoskeletal, circulatory and excretory system; gonads; muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems; adrenal cortex
143
Mesoderm
Becomes mostly the musculoskeletal, circulatory and excretory system; gonads; muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems; adrenal cortex
144
Endoderm
Becomes the epithelial lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts and parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts
145
Endoderm
Becomes the epithelial lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts and parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts
146
Neurulation
Development of the nervous system that begins after the formation of the three germ layers
147
Notochord
Induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to form neural folds surrounding a neural groove
148
Neural Tube
Forms from the fusing the neural folds and becomes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
149
Neural Tube
Forms from the fusing the neural folds and becomes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
150
Neural Crest Cells
Located at the tip of the neural folds and become the peripheral nervous system (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and schwann cells)
151
Teratogens
Substances that interfere with development causes defects or death of the developing embryo; alcohol, certain drugs, viruses, bacteria and chemicals
152
Folic Acid Deficiency
Cause Neural Tube defects
153
Folic Acid Deficiency
Cause Neural Tube defects
154
Determination
Commitment of a specific cell lineage
155
What causes cellular determination?
Morphogens or uneven segregation of cellular material during mitosis
156
Morphogens
Promote development down a specific cell line
157
What does a cell need to have to respond to a specific morphogen?
Competency (ability to take up dna and become genetically transformed)
158
Differentiation
Changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriate to its cell line
159
Differentiation
Changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriate to its cell line
160
Stem Cells
Cells capable of developing into various cell types; classified by potency
161
Stem Cells
Cells capable of developing into various cell types; classified by potency
162
Totipotent Cells
Able to differentiate into all cell types, including three germ layers and placental structures
163
Totipotent Cells
Able to differentiate into all cell types, including three germ layers and placental structures
164
Pluripotent Cells
Able to differentiate into all three of the germ layers and their derivatives
165
Multipotent Cells
Able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types
166
Multipotent Cells
Able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types
167
Inducer
Releases factors to promote differentiation of a competent responder
168
Autocrine Signals
Act on the same cell that released the signal
169
Paracrine Signals
Act on cells in the local area
170
Juxtacrine Signals
Act through direct stimulation of the adjacent cells
171
Endocrine Signals
Act on distant tissues after traveling through the blood stream
172
Endocrine Signals
Act on distant tissues after traveling through the blood stream
173
Growth Factors
Peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues
174
Reciprocal Induction
When two tissues induce further differentiation in each other
175
Programmed Cell Death
Formation of apoptotic blebs that can subsequently be absorbed and digested by other cells; can be used to sculpt certain anatomical structures
176
Regenerative Capacity
Ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body; liver has high and heart has low
177
Senescence
Result of multiple molecular and metabolic processes; shortening of telomeres during cell division
